ASSESSING A TARGET SYSTEM

Introduction

Ultimately, every hacker wishes to compromise a target system and gain access to that system, this goal is the same for any hacker, regardless of the hacker’s “hat” (his or her ideology or motivation). Before a hacker can attempt to compromise a target system, he must know a great deal about the target system. There are a number of network utilities, Web site & programs that a hacker can use to find out about a target system. Learning these methods will help us for two reasons. First you should know exactly what tools crackers have at their disposal to assess your system’s vulnerabilities. Second, many security-savvy network administrators will frequently use these tools to assess their own systems. Another term for assessing your own systems. Another term for assessing your own system (or a client’s) is auditing. When hacker or cracker is examining a potential target system, this assessment is called footprinting. If you can find vulnerabilities. You have the chance to fix them before someone else exploits.

Recall the discussion of the rather tedious process hackers have to use in order to enter a target system. The first stage of this process is learning about the system. It is important to know about the operating system, any software running on it, what security measures are in effect and as much about the network as possible. This legwork is like a bank "template" before attempting a hooligan crime. The thief needs to know all about alarm systems, work schedules and guards. It is necessary for the hacker, who enters into the system. The hacker’s first step is to gather information about that system. To assess you own system, therefore, needs to be your first step also.

Basic Reconnaissance

On any system, you must first start finding out some general information. This task – commonly referred to as reconnaissance – is particularly easy with Web server. A Web server, by definition, must communicates with Web clients. That activity means that a certain amount of information is easily accessible in the public domain. In the past, security managers had to use some rather arcane – looking commands from either a command prompt or a Linux / Unix shell to gather this information. But today, you can get the information in just a few simple steps by using some readily available utilities. These tools are used by both security managers as well as crackers.

The ways in which information is obtained by a cracker can vary greatly. Although there are many tools available, the ways listed below are the most likely initial reconnaissance methods used for Windows platforms:

v  Nslookup

v  Whois

v  ARIN (This is available via any Internet browser client.)

v  Web-based tools (Hundreds if not thousands of sites offer various reconnaissance tools.)

v  Target Web site (The client’s Web site often reveals too much information.)

v  Social engineering (People are an organization’s greatest asset as well as their greatest risk.)

In the following section, we will explore a few of the many Web based tool available for obtaining basic information on a target system.

 

Netcraft

The first step on our journey is the Netcraft Web site. This Web site gathers information about Web servers – information that you can use in assessing a target system. It provides an online utility that will tell you what Web server software it is running, what operating system it is using and other important and interesting information.

1.      Open your browser and key www.netcraft.com

2.      Click the link titled “What’s that site running,” which is found on the left side of the page.

3.      Key www.chuckeasttom.com into the “What’s that site running?”

4.      Press Enter. You will find a great deal of important information.

You can see that server is running the FreeBSD operating system a Unix variant. You can also look the machine’s IP address. This step is your first in learning about the target system. In many cases, with other addresses, you would also find out what Web server the target system is running. You can then scan the Internet looking for any known flaws with either the operating system or the Web server software. This step gives you a starting place to find out about the system and what weaknesses you might be able to exploit. In this case, you would simply go to your favorite search engine (Google, Yahoo, Lycos and so forth) and key in something such as “FreeBSd security flaws.” You will surprise that how many Web sites will provide you the drawback of the system. Some sites even have step-by-step instruction on how to exploit these weaknesses.

The fact that this information is so readily available should be enough to alarm any system administrator. As software developers are known from drawbacks of their software, they usually correct their code, known as patches or updates. If you are not regularly updating your system’s then you are leaving your system for external virus attacks.

Besides strengths and weaknesses of that software, sometimes just knowing the operating system and the Web server software is enough information in and of itself. i.e. if a target system is running Windows NT 4.0, what would this fact tell a hacker? Because Microsoft has long ago released Windows 2000, Windows XP and Window 2003 Server, the hacker can deduce that this target system does not frequently update its software. This could denote a company that is on a very tight budget or one that simply is not particularly computer – savvy. In either case, this lack of updating software means that this system probably doesn’t employ the latest security devices and techniques.

 

Tracing the IP Address

The nest piece of information you will want concerns the various connections between you and the target system. When you visit a Web site, the packets bouncing back and forth between you and the target site do not take a direct route from you to there. They usually bounce around the Internet, going through various Internet service providers and routers. The obvious way to obtain this information is to use the traceroute or tracert utility. You can then write down the IP address of each step in the journey. Howeve, this task can be very tedious. An easier process is offered through the Visualware Inc. Web site. Visualware offers some very interesting products, along with free online Web demos. These products automate network utilities, such as tracert and who is, in a rich graphical interface. I find Visualware’s product, VisualRoute, to be particularly useful and remarkably easy to employ.

Using IP Registration Information

The information gained with these utilities can be used in a variety of ways i.e. you can take the e-mail address of the administrator and do a Google “groups” search for that address. Google now provides a gateway, via its “groups” tab, to Usenet newsgroups. These groups are basically global bulletin boards where people can engage in discussion on a wide range of topics. Network administrators sometime post questions in specific newsgroups hoping to get advice from the colleagues. If the network administrator of the target system has posted, he or she may have given away more information about her network than is wise. In one case, a network administrator usually posted a link to a diagram showing his entire network, the server, IP addresses, type of firewall and so on. This information could have been easily exploited.

That is not to say that administrators must avoid using the Internet as an information source. That is certainly not the case. But when administrators do use newsgroups, they should not use their real name, their company’s name, or any information that might facilitate tracking them back to their company. In this way, information that they discuss about their forms network can not readily to apply.

Social Engineering

One of the most common applications for using the information gained from reconnaissance work is social engineering. Social engineering is a non-technical way of intruding on a system.  This can range from dumpster diving to trying to get employee to unwittingly compromise the system.

When dumpster diving, some typing to obtain information will go through trash cans or dumpsters looking for garbage that contains information such as a IP address, password or even a map of the network. This technique can be very messy, but also quite effective.

The most common tactic is to try to get an authorized user of a system to give you her password. This task may sound impossible, but it is actually quite easy. For example, if a hacker has discovered the name of the system administrator and knows that the company is rather large with a big Information Technology (IT) department, she can use this name to her advantage. Assume a scenario in which a hacker finds out that the network administrator for a certain firm is named Jan Smith. She can get Jan’s office location, e-mail address and phone number from Internic or from using VisualRoute software. She can now call a remote office and speak to a secretary. The pan could work extremely well if that secretary (let’s call him Eric) is new to the company. The hacker tells Eric that she is a new intern working for John Smith and that John has instructed her to check all the PCs to ensure that they have proper virus – scanning software. The hacker name and password, so could Eric please give these to her? It is amazing how often the person will indeed give a username and password to a caller. With this information, the hacker does not need to use any technical skills at all. She can simply use Eric’s legitimate username and password and log on to the target system.

Note that such as all the employees of an organization must be knew about computer security same in that scheme. No matter how secure your system is or how much time and money you invest in security, it is all for naught if your empolyees are easily duped into compromising security.

There are entire volumes written on social engineering. As with all topics, the goal is acquaint you with the basics, not to make you master of any of the topics. The following links may be interest.

Ø  www.securityfocus.com/egi-bin/sfonline/infocus.pl?id=1527

Ø  www.cybercrime.net/Property/Hacking/social%20Engineering/SocialEngineering.html

Ø  www.sans.org/rr/catindex.php?cat_id=51

UTILITIES

 

Basic Network Utilities

You will use information and technique that are base in part, on certain techniques anyone can perform on his machine. There are network utilities that you can execute from a command prompt (windows) or from a shell (Unix/Linux). Many readers are already familiar with Windows, so the text’s discussion will execute the commands and discuss them from the Windows command-prompt perspective. We must stress that all the operating systems have these utilities. In this section, you will read about IPConfig, ping & tracert utilities.

IPConfig

When beginning to su7dy networks, the first thing, you will want to do is to get information about your own system. To accomplish this fact-finding mission, you will need to get t a command prompt. In Windows XP or Windows 2000, you can open the command prompt by performing the following steps:

1.      Open the Start menu.

2.      Select Run.

3.      In the dialog box that open, type cmd and click OK

4.      Type ipconfig. (you could input the same command in Unix or Linux by typing in ifconfig once inside the shell.)

5.      Press the Enter key. You should see something that command prompt will be open on your system screen.

This command gives you information about your connection. Important thing is that you have received your own IP address. The IP address has default gate way, which creates your connection with other world. IPConfig command is a first step to configure your network system. Most of the commands that this text will mention, including IPConfig, have several parameters, or flags, that can be assigned to commands to treat the computer in a certain way. You can find out what these commands are by typing in the command, followed by space and then typing in hyphen question marks.

There are number of options you might use to find out different details about your system configuration. The moist commonly used method would probably be the IPConfig/all.

Ping

Another commonly used command is ping. We can use Ping to a test packet, or echo packet, that we can know the performance of packet. Ping is used in earlier hacking technique.

You that a 32 byte echo packet was send to the destination and returned. The ttl item means “time to live”. That time unit is how many intermediate measures, or hops, the packet should take to the destination before giving up. Reminder that the Internet is a vast conglomerate of interconnected networks. You packet probably will not go straight to its destination, but will have to take several hops to get there. Can you type in ping As with IPConfig - ? You can refine your ping to find out various ways.

Tracert

The final command we will examine is tracert. This command is basically a “ping deluxe”. Tracert not only tells you whether the packet got to its destination and how long it took, but also tells you all the intermediate hops it took to get there. This utility will very useful to you in future. Illustrates a tracert to www.yahoo.com. This same command can be executed in Linus or Unix, but there it is called “traceroute” rather than “tracert”.

With tracert, you can see the IP address of each intermediate step listed and how long it took to get to that step. Knowing the steps required to reach a destination can be very important, as you will find.

Certainly, there are other utilities that can be of use to you when working with network communication. However, these are three basic utilities which are examined by us. IPConfig, ping, tracert are absolutely essential for a  network administrator and you should commit them to memory.

 

Other Network Devices

There are other devices involved in networking that work to protect your computer from the outside world. Some of these devise I was briefly mention in previous articles. We will now review a  few of them in more detail. The two most common devices in this category are the firewall and the proxy server. Basically firewall is a main barrier between your network and the rest of the Internet. A personal computer (PC) can be used as a firewall or in many cases; a special router can function as a firewall. Firewalls, which can be hardware, software or a combination of both, use different techniques to protect your network, but the most common strategy is packet filtering. In a packet-filtering firewall, each incoming packet is examined. Only those packets which are match with your criteria. (Generally, only those packets are allowed, which are used special protocol). Many operating systems, such as Windows XP and many Linus distributions, include basic packet-filtering software with the operating system.

The second common type defensive in proxy server, a proxy server will almost always be another computer. We can use a computer as proxy server as well as firewall. Proxy server is a way through which you can connect with other world. A proxy server hides your entire network from the outside world. Those people who trying hack your system they can see a proxy server cannot be seen your system. When packets leave your network, their headers are changed so that the packets contain the return address of the proxy server. In contrast, the only way to access the outside world is through a proxy server. Proxy server with firewall is basic network security. It would frankly be negligent to ever run a network that did not have a firewall and proxy server.

HOW INTERNET WORKS

Now that you have a basic idea of how computer communicate with each other over a network, it is time to discuss how the Internet works. The Internet is essentially just a large number of networks connected to each other. So, the Internet works just like your local network. This is sent as data packets using the protocol. These different networks are not connected to the main transmission lines called backbones. The points where backbones connect to each other are called Network Access Points (NAP). You may use an Internet Service Provider (ISP) when you are logged in to the Internet. That ISP has connection either to the Internet backbone or to yet another provider that has a backbone. Thus, logging on to the Internet is a process of connecting your computer to your ISP’s network, which is, in turn, connected to one of the backbone on the Internet.

 IP Address

With tens of thousands of millions of individual computers networking and sending data and data, a probability problem arises. The problem then is to ensure that the data packets go to the right computer. This task is accomplished in much that same way as traditional letter mail is delivered to the right person: via an address. With network communication, this address is a special one, referred to as an IP address. An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device a device on an IP network. The address consists of four 3 digit numbers separated by period (an example would be 107, 22, 99, 198.) Each of the three-digit numbers must be betw4en 0 & 255. This rule stems from the fact that IP addresses are actually four binary numbers: you just see them in decimal format. Recall that a byte is eight bits (1s & 0s), & and an eight-bit binary number converted to decimal format will be.

 

IN PRACTICE: Converting Binary Numbers

For those readers not familiar with converting binary numbers to decimal, there are several methods. We will discuss one methods here. You should be aware that the computer will do this for you in case of IP addresses, but some readers may wish to know how this is done. While there are many methods, perhaps the simplest is: Divide repeatedly by 2, Using “remainders” than decimal places, until you get down to 1. For example, convert decimal 31 to binary: 31/2     = 15     Remainder 1 15/2     = 7       Remainder 1 7/2       = 3       Remainder 1 3/2       = 1       Remainder 1 1/2       = 0       Remainder 1 Now read the remainders from bottom to top: the binary equivalent is 00011111. (Note that you complete the octet by filling in the leading spaces with “0”s to make an 8 bit numeral). While you can step through the math to convert a decimal number to a binary number, you may find it easier to use a converter. There are many converters available on the Internet that can be found by searching for the keywords “binary converter”.

Public versus Private

IP addresses come in two groups: public & private. Public IP addresses are for those computers, which connected with Internet. Two public IP addresses can be the same. However, a private IP address, such as one on a private company network, only has to be unique within that network. Within an isolated network, you can assign random IP addresses as long as each one is unique. It does not matter whether other computers throughout the world have the same IP address because this computer is never connected to those other worldwide computers. However, making a copy requires using a registered IP address (called Internet address) to avoid connecting to a private network for the Internet. Often, network administrators use private IP addresses that begin with a 10 such as 10, 102, 230, and 17.

It should also be pointed out that an ISP will often buy a pool of public IP addresses and assign them to you when you log on. Therefore, an ISP might own 100 public IP addresses and have 10,000 customers. Not all 10,000 customers will be online at the same time, because the ISP only gives one customer and IP address when he and the ISP are logged on When the customer logs IP address unassigns.

 Classes

The address of a computer tells you a great deal about that computer. The first byte (or first decimal number) in an address tells you to what class of network that machine belongs. Summarizes the five network classes.

Four numbers of an IP address that are used in different ways to identify a particular network and host on the network. There are four regional Internet registries (ARIN, RIPE, NCC, LACNIC, APNIC) that assign Internet addresses from the A, B & C classes.

These five classes of networking will become more important later in this book (or you should decide to study networking at a deeper level). You will probably discover that limit IP 127.

 

Class	IP Range for the First Byte	Use
A	0 - 126	Extremely large networks. All Classes. A network IP addresses have been used and none are left
B	128 – 191	Large corporate and government networks. All Class B network IP addresses have been used
C	192 – 223	The most common group of IP addresses. It is Class C IP address of ISP.
D	224 – 247	These are reserved for multicasting. Note: Multicasting is transmitting the same data to multiple (but not all) destinations.
E	248 – 255	Reserved for experimental use.

was not listed. It is forgotten because the limit is specific to the test. The IP address of 127.0.0.1 destinates the machine, on which you are working, regardless of the machine’s assigned IP address. This address is called a loopback address. That address will be used often in testing your machine & NIC.

 

Availability of Addresses

If you do the math, you will find that our current addressing method means there are a total of over 4.2 million possible IP addresses. That seems like a very large number but, in reality; the number of unassigned Internet addresses is running out. You should not be concerned, however, as methods are already in place to extend the use of addresses. The new addressing system will be a classless scheme called CIDR (Classless Inter – Domain Routing), & it is tied to the replacement of IP V4 with IP V6.

The entire discussion of IP addresses up to this point is based on IP V4 (version 4.0), the current standard. IP V6 (version 6.0), however, is likely t be implemented in future. Rather than 32 – bit addresses (four 8 – bit number), the IP V6 uses 128 – bit addresses. IP V6 is configured for backward compatibility, which means that to use the new IP V6, there will fortunately not be a need to change ever IP address in the world. Keep in mind that, when we discuss the packet structure of an IP packet, we are talking about both the IP V4 & IP V6 packets. In comparison IP V4 packet, IP V6 packets have longer header segments and the header is structured a little differently.

With CIDR, a single IP address can be used to designate many different and unique IP addresses. In contrast to an IP address, a CIDR IP address ends with a slash followed by a number, called the IP network prefix. An example of a CIDR IP address is 156.201.10.10/12. The IP network prefix specifies how many addresses are covered by the CIDR address. Lower numbers specify more addresses. In other hands to providing more addresses within organization, CIDR addresses also reduce the size of routing table.

 Subnet

A subnet is a portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address (a common address component). Subnets of all devices on a TCP / IP network that IIP addresses are the same as the previous one. For example, all devices with an IP address that starts with 200.200.200. Would be part of the same subnet. It is useful for network security as well as its performance that we divide the network into sub networks. Sub-netting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the address into two or more subnets. In this case, the host address is reserved to identification the particular subnet. IP networks are divided using a subnet mask.

 Subnet Mask

As we discussed earlier, an IP address is made up of 32 binary bits. These bits can be divided into two components: the network address and the host address. A subnet mask is a 32 – bit combination used to describe which portion of an address refer to the subnet (network) and which part refers to the host. This mask is used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to. For example, in the IP address 185.201.20.2 (assuming this is part of a Class B network), the first two numbers (185.201) represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (20.2) identify a particular host on this network.

Uniform Resource Locators

After you connect to your ISP you will, of course, want to visit some Websites. You probably type name into your browser’s address bar rather than IP addresses. i.e., you might type in www.chuckeasttom.com to go my Website. Your computer or your ISP must translate the name you typed (caked a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into an IP address. The DNS protocol handles this translation process. You type a name, which has meant by human, but your computer is using a finding specific IP address to connect. Packet 80 is sent by your browser. If that target computer has software that listens and responds to such request (like Web server software such as Apache or Microsoft Internet Information Server), then the request of your browser is excepted and communication will continue. This method is how Web pages are viewed.

If you have ever received an Error 404: File Not Found message, what you are seeing is that your browser received back a packet (from the Web server) with error code 404, denoting that Web page you requested could not be found. The error message by web server you will receive on your web browser to point out your mistakes.  Many of these problems can be handled by the browser itself and you never see the error message. All error messages in the 400 series are client error. This term means that something is wrong on your side, not the Web server. Messages in the 500 series are server errors, which mean that there is a problem on the Web server. Massages of 100-series are only informative; 200-series messages indicate success; 300-series messages are re-directional, meaning the Web page you are moved and your browser is directed to the new location.

E-mail works the same way as visiting Web sites. Your e-mail client (the software you use to manage your e-mail account) will seek out the address of your e-mail server. Your e-mail client will then use either POP3 to retrieve your incoming e-mail or SMTP to send your outgoing e-mail. Your e-mail server (probably at your ISP or company) will then try to resolve the address you are sending to. If you send something to chuckeasttom@yohoo.com , your e-mail server at yahoo.com; your server will then send your e-mail there. Not that there are newer e-mail protocol available, but POP3 is still the most commonly used.

PHYSICAL CONNECTION OF NETWORK

Internet:

The explanation above covers the connections between computers on a local network, but what connection methods are used for the Internet? Your Internet service provider or the companies for which you work probably use one of the fast internet connections, which are described in table. This following table summarizes the most common Internet connection types and their speeds.

 

Connection Type	Speed	Details
DSO	64 kilo bits per second	1/24 of T1 line or one T1 channel
ISDN	128 kilo bits per second	2 DSO working together to provide a high-speed data connection
T1	1.54 megabits per second	24 DSO lines working as one, with 23 carrying information and one other line. This type of connection has become common for schools and business.
T3	43.2 megabits per second	672 DSO lines working together. This method is the equivalent of T1 lines.
OC3	155 megabits per second	All OC lines are optical & do not use traditional phone lines are quite fast, very expensive, & are often found at telecommunications companies.
OC12	622 megabits	The equivalent of 366 T1 lines or 8064 phone lines.
OC48	2.5 gigabits per second	The equivalent of 4 OC12 lines.

 

It is common to find a T1 connection lines in many places. Sometimes you can get a cable modem speeds comparable to a T1 line. Note the cable modems were not listed in above mentioned table simple because their actual speeds vary greatly depending on a variety of circumstances, including how many people in If you are using a cable modem in the immediate area.Unless you work in telecommunications you are not likely to encounter OC lines.

 

Data Transmission

We have briefly seen the physical connection methods, but how is data actually transmitted? To transmit data, a packet is sent. The main purpose of a cable to transfer packets from one machine. It does not matter whether that packet is a part of document, video, image or just some internal signal from the computer. This fact begs the question: What, exactly, is a packet? As we discussed earlier, everything in a computer is ultimately stored as 1s & 0s, called bits, which are grouped into sets of eight, called a byte. A packet, also referred to as a diagram, is a certain number of bytes divided into a header and a body. A 20-byte packet header section at the beginning. The header tells you where the packet is coming from, where it is going and more. The body contains the actual data in binary form and you want to send. Above routers and switches his work to be read as part of a packet header. This packet should be sent to how they determine.

Ø  Protocols
there are different types of network communications for different purpose. The different types of network communication are called protocols. A protocol is basically an agreement on a communication method. In fact, this definition is how the word "protocol" is used in standard, non-computer use. Each protocol has a specific purpose and normally operates on a certain logical port.
Some of the most significant protocols that are currently used include TCP, IP, UDP & ICMP. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) enables the host computer to establish a connection and exchange data. This guarantees the delivery of data in proper order. IP (Internet Protocol) specifies the format of the packets and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with the higher-level TCP to form to protocol suite known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and source. Something similar to the IP emails system by itself. It allows you to address a package & drop it in the system, but there is no direct link between you and the recipient. The TCP / IP, on the other hand, they set up a connection between two hosts so you can send messages back and forth for a period of time and.
UDP (User Data gram Protocol) is a connection less protocol, meaning that it is a network protocol in which a host can send a message without establishing a connection with the recipient. UDP runs on top of IP net recovery services. Instead, it offers a direct way to send and receive datagrams (packets) over an IP network. Its primary use is broadcasting messages over a network, but it does not guarantee the delivery of packets.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is an extension of IP. It supports packets containing error, informational & control message. ICMP command uses by Ping to test an Internet connection.

Ø  Ports
You may be wondering what a port is. Do not confuse this type port with the connection locations on the back of the computer system suck as serial port, parallel port or RJ 11 & RJ45 (physical port) we discussed earlier. A port, in networking term, is a handle – a connection point. It is numeric designation for a particular pathway of communications. All network communication, regardless of the port used, comes to your computer via connection to your network interface card.

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT OPERATING SYSTEM

 

DOS EXTERNAL COMMANDS
External command exists as a separate file on your hard disk. An external command is not loaded in memory with internal DOS command like command.com file. The reason for this is to save the computer memory. You must be present on the disk that are applied to the external command. Some of DOS external commands are Backup, Format etc.

BACKUP :-
This Command is used to take backups of any program / software on floppy disk.
Syntax:
Backup source path: Target path:
e.g.
C:\>BACKUP A: B: (Press Enter Key)

CHKDSK :-
This command is used to check the status of a disk and a status report displays. It can also correct errors. Show the status report errors found in MS - contains directories of the file allocation table and the DOS filing system. CHKDSK displays a summary of disk usage. If errors exist on the file disk, it alerts you with a message.
Syntax:
CHKDSK OR CHKDSK Drive-name
e.g.
C:\>CHKDSK A: (Press Enter Key)
C:\>CHKDSK B: (Press Enter Key)

DISKCOPY :-
This command complete contents of a floppy disk to a floppy disk is used for duplicates. DISKCOPY writes the current contents of the destination disk as new information on the copies. It has following syntax.
Syntax:
C:\>DISKCOPY Source-Drive: Target-Drive:
e.g.
C:\>DISKCOPY A: B: (Press Enter Key)
Source-drive:
Specifies the drive from which the data is to copied..
Target-Drive:
Specifies the drive on which the data is to copied.
Switch/v
Verifies that the information is copied correctly. Please use the switch as follows.
C:\>DISKCOPY A: B:/v

DISKCOMP:-
it is used to compare the contents of the two floppy disk. The command performs tack-by-track comparison. CISKCOPY determines the number of sides and sector per track to compare based on the format of the first disk you specify.
Syntax:
DISKCOMP Drive1: Drive2:
e.g.
DISKCOM A: B: (Press Enter Key)

XCOPY :-
This command is used to copies any directories, its sub-directories and files from one location to another.
Syntax:
XCOPY Source-path: Target-path:
Source-path:
It specific the location where we want to copy files, etc. This is the name of a drive letter and colon, a directory, a filename, or a combination.

SWITCHES:
/Y:-
It is used to replace existing files without prompting for confirmation switch. By default, XCOPY will ask to overwrite the designation files
/P:-
This switch is used to prompt for confirmation when replacing an existing file.
/S:-
This switch is used to copies directories and subdirectories, unless they empty. If this switch is left, XCOPY works within a single directory.
e.g.
C:\>Copy A: B: (Press Enter Key)

FORMAT :-
This command is used to create a new root  directory and file allocation table for the disk. It can also check for bad areas on the disk, and delete all data on the disk.
Syntax:
FORMAT drive: [/ V [: label]] [/ Q] [/ U] [/ F: size] [/ B] [/ S] [/ C]
Switches:\
/V: label :-
It specifies the volume label. Volume label identification can be a disk and a maximum of 11 characters. If it remains, then after formatting the volume is completed on the pointer to the label for the label.
/Q :-
This switch is used for quick formatting of a disk. Using this switch with format command. Computer deletes the FAT and the rood directory of a formatted disk, but does not scan the disk for bad sectors.
/U :-
This switch is used for unconditional format of a disk. Unconditional formatting destroys all existing data on a disk and prevents us from "Un formatting" this disk at a later stage. We can use this switch, if we facing Read and Write errors during the use of a disk.
/S :-
The switch system is used to copy the files to the new format disk file command.com.
e.g.
C:\>FORMAT A:/S                          OR
C:\>FORMAT B:/Q/U/S

CHKDSK :-
it is used to checks a disk and displays a status report.
Syntax:
CHKDSK [drive:][[path]filename] [/F][/V][drive:][path]
Set to test drive and directory, specifies the file (s) to check for fragmentation.

Defines the drive and directory to check,
/F Fixes errors on the disk.
/ V displays the full path and name of each file on disk.

Type CHKDSK without parameters to check the current disc. Instead of using CHKDSK, try using SCANDISK. SCANDISK can reliably detect and Fix a very wide range of disk issues.
e.g.
C:\>CHKDSK A: OR CHKDSK C:

DEFINITIONS OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

MICROSOFT WINDOWS :-

Microsoft Corporation created Microsoft Windows operating system. It is Graphical User Interface (GUI), operating system based largely on picture, button and many options on the screen rather than on typed commands such as the old DOS. For Example if the user has to open the Microsoft Word for writing then he just has to double click the icon on the desktop and the program will start. Microsoft performs the same function as the Windows MS-DOS. It performs the duty of interface between you and your computer.
Feature of GUI causes the display screen to divide into section. Each window is for different and specific purpose. Using the windows feature, an operating system can display several windows on a computer screen each showing a different application program, such as word processing, spread sheet and graphics. It is a complete operating system.
TYPES OF WINDOWS
WINDOWS 3.X :-
This DOS base GUI operating system environment is built by Microsoft.
WINDOWS 95 :-
After the DOS base of Windows 3.x, it has a complete operating system for personal computers.
WINDOWS NT (New Technology) :-
This Multiuser is multitasking, multiprocessing GUI network operating system.
WINDOWS 98 :-
It release after Windows 95. It is an operating system that uses a GUI feature and acts like web browser software and allows users to access data on the Internet.
WINDOW 2000 :-
It release after Windows 98. Latest release is Windows 2000 (Millennium).
WINDOWS XP :-
The release of Windows XP is the latest version of Windows. GUI feature uses a Windows XP operating system ... XP stands for experience.
DESKTOP AND USER INTERFACE
The first appearing screen when windows start completely is called Desktop. The desktop contains files, folder, programs and documents; recycle bin, My Computer & shortcut icon. Technically, the desktop is the area behind all the objects on the screen, including any windows that you open. No matter if you used the Windows environment, you can always get back to the desktop to expand it to open the program and fill out an application, whether the whole screen. Desktop icons are available on the desktop. Users use icons of desktop to run application software or operate apply commands. Desktop icon is the interface between user and computer.

• TASKBAR :-
  Taskbar includes the Start button on your desktop once in the left. Start button Windows applications, open documents, is used to start up help, etc. Immediately to the right of the start button is the quick launch toolbar which contains buttons to run the internet explorer browser, outlook express, show desktop and the righty open full screen windows to view most button channels.
  In the center section of the taskbar, you will see a button for each program that is currently running and one for ever folder that is currently running and one for every folder that is currently open. This button provides a quick means of switching to a folder or application.
  The right most section is called tray. It consists of a clock displays the current time. The tray can also contain for various utility programs such as Internet connection or MSN Messenger program icon etc.

• RECYCLE BIN :-
  Recycle Bin is the folder. When we delete one or more files or folders from hard disk, they are not actually erased they are transferred to a folder called Recycle Bin on the desktop. 
• Restore a file or files recycle bin :-
  You can restore files or folders in the trash or recycle bin. Click on the file or folder, click right mouse button and then click restore.   
  
  OR    

                 Select the folder from the Files or Trash, click the File menu, and then click Restore

• Empty Recycle Bin :-
  To empty recycle bin point to recycle bin icon on desktop click right mouse button, click Empty Recycle Bin on dropdown menu and click yes.

•  MY DOCUMENTS ICON :-
  My Document contains documents. Through double clicks we can open the My Document. After opening the document window double click the document, which you want to open. When you double-click a document icon, Windows start the application (Word processing, spread sheet, etc.) and the document itself.
• MY COMPUTER:-
  We can access the hardware and software through it. Open the My Computer icon in any drive and then double-click Access Hardware or Software. 
• INTERNET EXPLORER:-
  It is use for internet connection. Internet Explorer Web browser software through which you can view any website.
•  CLIPBOARD :-
  Clipboard is used to copy or move data easily from one program to another using the same cut, copy & paste commands.

MOVING WINDOWS

This procedure is use to move a window when it is not maximized to another location on the screen.

Method one:

Drag the title bar to a new location.

By another Method when it is not maximized: 

1.     Click right mouse button on title bar a drop down many display on screen. 

2.     Click on Move.

3.     Using arrow keys we can shift windows to any desired location.

ICON 

An Icon is picture used in GUI to represent a command, a program, a file or a task e.g. the diskette can represent an image of the command "Save (Store) this document", the icons are activated by pointing a mouse or other device. A graphical icon or a symbol that represents something in your computer.

To make a new folder use the following steps: 

This method is used to create a new one.

1.     Double click My Computer and then double click the drive or folder in which you want to place the new folder.

2.     On the File menu point to New and then click the Folder.

3.     Type the name of the new folder and press Enter.

Create a folder on desktop: 

This method can be used to create a new folder on the desktop.

1.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop.

2.     Point to new on drop down menu.

3.     Click folder, enter name.

SHORTCUT: 

A shortcut is a quick way to open a file or folder without having to launch a program or go to its permanent location.

Create a shortcut on desktop: 

1.     Click on My Computer

2.     Select the folder or file and click right mouse button, click copy or cut.

3.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop

4.     Click on paste a shortcut.

OR

1.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop, select new, and click on short cut.

2.     Enter the location in the Create shortcut dialog box or search through browse, select the files or folder

3.     Click Ok

4.     Click Next

5.     Click Ok

To find an application or document or file: 

This process (search) is used to search for an existing application.

1.     Click on start button

2.     Point to find

3.     Select files and folder

4.     Enter the name of the file in the named text box and text in the containing text box

5.     Click Find Now button. 

To quit windows and Shut Down computer

This method is used to exit Windows itself.

Steps

1.     Click start Button on taskbar

2.     Click on Shut Down..... a dialog box appear on screen.

3.     Click on shut down radio button

4.     click on Ok

To move or copy document

To move or copy a file (document) or folder use the following steps.

1.     Double click My Computer and then find the file or folder you want to move or copy and then click it.

2.     Click edit click cut or copy

3.     Open the folder where you want to place the file

4.     Click edit and then click paste.

Using Wilder Deleting a file in the following steps

1.     Double click My Computer and then find the file or folder you want to delete and click it. 

2.     On the file menu Click Delete, The files you want to delete are put in the recycle bin, a holding place holding the files you no longer need. The file is not actually removed from your hard disk until you empty the recycle bin.

New folder is created by following steps

1.     Double click My Computer and then double click the drive or folder in which you want to place the new folder.

2.     On the File menu point the New and then click the folder.

3.     Type the name of the new folder and press Enter.

Steps to Copy a file to a Floppy Disk are as under

1.     Double click My Computer, find the file or folder you want to copy and then click it.

2.     On the File menu point to send to and then click the drive where you want to copy the file or folder. 

To start a program 

This process begins with an application button is used to start.

1.     Click Start, and then point to Programs.

2.     If the program you want is not on the menu, point to folder that contains the program.

3.     Click the program name.

To open a file or folder 

1.     Double click My Computer, 

2.     Double click the drive that contains the file.

3.     Double click the file or folder you want to open. 

WINDOWS FILE SYSTEM :-

A software component services, create, read, write and delete that may provide the files / directory on the management of storage in a storage device (hard disk drive, floppy disk, CD) side. Windows support three file systems FAT, VFAT, NTFS

FAT (FILE ALLOCATION TABLE)

The File Allocation Table  (FAT)  file system was introduced with MS-DOS in 1981. Because of its age, almost all computer operating systems, including Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 2000, XP, Mac, OS and most UNIX operating systems support the FAT file system. FAT file system is not stopping files by a simple file system such that power failure is deteriorating in abnormal shutdown. FAT file system DOS, a user operating system that was designed to be used with. The FAT file system therefore does not record security information such as the owner or access permission of a file of directory.

NTFS (NEW TECHNOLOGY FILE SYSTEM)

Windows NT operating system is used by NTFS. It supports Windows NT, Windows 2000, XP. NTFS tools many security features to ensure reliable storage and retrieval of data. NTFS has many features that make it more suitable than FAT file systems.

FAT 32 / VFAT

 This FAT, FAT32 file system, File Allocation Table (FAT or FAT16) is an addition to the prior version of the file system format. When you drive in this format, to more efficiently store data up to several hundred MB of additional disk space on this drive. Also, the program loads faster and uses less system resources than your computer.

INSTALLATION OF SOFTWARE

The following is the procedure for installing the software.

Method - 1

1.     Double click on My Computer Icon on Desktop

2.     Open the drive from where you install the software.

3.     Click setup the installation will be start then follow the instruction untill Finish.

Method - 2

1.     Open the Control Panel 

2.     Double Click on Add/Remove program Button 

3.     Click on install/uninstall tab

4.     Click on install tab

5.     Click on Next

6.     Select Drive from where you want to install software.

FUNCTIONALITIES OF MOUSE AND KEYBOARD 

Mouse Setting:-

You can change the configuration of the mouse control panel. Double click on Control Panel to open control penal dialing box. Mouse Properties Double-click the Mouse icon to open the dialog box. There are three tab buttons available in the Properties dialog box.

• Button Tab
  Click on Button tab to change the left - right mouse button and set double click speed, press apply button and then ok button.
• Mouse Pointer
  Click the Pointer tab to change the mouse pointer shape and scheme, Scheme list box or click on the Browse button shape an individual item. A browse box will be open then the desired shape. Click on apply, then ok.
• Motion
  Click on Motion tab, set mouse speed and select check / uncheck mouse pointer trail.

MOUSE TECHNIQUE

Mouse is an input device. There are different mouse techniques. We can adjust the double-click speed, appearance, cursor, pop-up rate and adjust the mouse trails from the control panel.

We can use second one mouse technique also as follow:

POINTING

Another point on the screen to move quickly from one point. To place the mouse pointer on over any location. We rolled mouse on the surface of flat to point to any location.
CLICKING
To place the mouse pointer on any desired location or icon or picture and then click left or right mouse button over that location or icon or picture is clicking.
DOUBLE - CLICKING
To keep the mouse pointer over any icon or image desired location or click on the icon or image location or the left or right mouse button to perform an action.
DRAGGING
To point to any location or icon or picture and then click and hold left mouse button and drag to the designed location.
SCROLL KEY
Mouse scroll key is used to scroll through open windows.
KEY BOARD SETTING

You can change the keyboard setting through Control Panel. We can use control panel dialog box for keyboard setting. Double click on keyboard icon to open keyboard properties dialog box. There are two tab button available on properties.

• Speed Tab
  1- Click on Speed tab to set character repeat, repeat rate, and cursor blank rate.
• Language Tab
  1 - Click on the tab to install and configure language. Language to add or apply it after clicking features to select the language and then click OK tab.
• USE OF WINDOWS HELP
  The windows help provides help topics and tips to help you accomplish your task. Windows, when working, which should be solved with the help of the options you can encounter various problems. Follow the following procedure.

1.     Click on Start button

2.     Click on Help a windows help dialog box appear on screen with three tab

1.     Contents Tab

Click and select any topics.

2.     Index Tab

Click on Index Tab. Select any type of keyword in any of the keywords, select the box "Type in keywords to search", and then click on display tab.

3.     Search Tab

Type keywords in "Type keyword to find" box, click on list topics tab, a list will appear. From the box to select the themes of "The Select Titles" and then click on the Display tab to see us about selected topics.