DATABASE CONCEPT

DATA 
The Latin word DATUM which known as DATA in English language. The collection of fact and figure is called data. OR any thing which is in raw form or non-decision-able. OR action taking is called Data, e.g. Name, Address, Number, Phone #, Roll No. etc.
Example:
when student fill College Admission Form, the form consists of raw facts about students. These raw facts are student name, father's name, marks obtain etc.

TYPE OF DATA
There different types of data.

1. Alphabetic Data Type:
                                        This data type is consists of letters from A-Z or a-z. e.g. PAKISTAN, Ali, Peshawar etc.
2. Numeric Data Type:
                                        It consists of digit from 0-9, e.g. 123, 567, etc
3. Alphanumeric Data Type:
                                        It consists on alphabetic letters asa well as digit. Street no. A/10 etc
4. Graphic Data Type:
                                        It consists table, chart, graphics and statements.
5. Audio Data Type:
                                        It consists only sounds, for example radio news.
6. Video Data Type:
                                       It consists photos, images and moving picture, such as TV news etc.
7. Mixed Data Type:
                                       It consists more than one type of data, such as the combination of Audio & Video data types.

WHAT IS DATA BASE 

A database is an integrated collection of data that is shared by all organisation users or staff. It is a large collection of data in a computer system, organised so that it can be expanded, updated and retrieved rapidly for various users. In the database management approach, data recor5ds are consolidate into database that can be accessed by many different application programms. An important software packages called a Data Base Management System (DBMS) serves as software interface between users and database. This helps users easily access the records in a database. Thus, database management involves the use of database management software to control how databases are created, interrogated, and maintain to provide information needed by end user and their organisation.

According to "Martin (1981)", "A data base is a shared collection of interrelated data designed to meet the needs of multiple types of end users".

Database has two properties.

1. It is Integrated
2. It is Shared.

By integrated we mean that previously distinct data files have been logically organised to eliminate redundancy and facilitate data access. By shared we mean that all the qualified users in the organisation have access to the same data for use in a variety of activities.

A data base is not only shared by multiple users but it is perceived differently by different users. 

The data stored in a database is independent of the application programms using it and of the type of secondary storage devices on which it is stored.

WHY USE ELECTRONIC DATABASE 

We use electronic database to use, store, retrieved, processed and communicate data electronically.

Electronic Database management reduces the duplication of data and integrates data so that they can be accessed by multiple programms and users. Programms are not depending on the data and type of secondary storage devices. Users are providing with an inquiry / response and reporting capabilities that allow them to easily obtain information they need. Information they needed with out having to write computer programm. The integrity and security of the data store in database can be increased, since access to data and modifications of database are control by database management software, a data dictionary and database administrator function.

TABLES AND RELATION 

1. TABLE:
   A table is a collection of data. Tables organised data into columns (called fields) and rows (called records).
2. RELATION:
   The relation is an association between common fields (column) in two tables.

TYPES OF RELATION (ASSOCIATION)

There are three types of relation ship, which are the following:

1. ONE TO ONE RELATION
   A one to one association from A to B means that for the specified period of time for a given value A there is associated a one and only one values of B. It can be represented as:
   
   Suppose we have data items REG-NO of students and STUDENTS NAME. A one to one association from data items REG-NO to data item STUDENTS NAME means that for specified period of time, the given value of REG-NO has one and only one value of STUDENT-NAME associated with it.
2. ONE TO MANY RELATION
   These states that for a given value of A there will be many values of B associated with it
   
                               Deptt:       ====>>========>                  Employees:
   
   In the above figure we have two data item Deptt: and Employee. A one to many associations from the data item Deptt: to data item Employee means that a Department has many employee. Double-headed arrows represent a one to many associations.
3. MANY TO MANY
   It states that at any given times there exist more than one values of B associated with the given value of A, and also for given value of B there are associated many value A.
   
                               Student  <====<===========>===>  Teacher
   
   In the figure we have two data items student and teacher. Many students have many teachers.

DATA BASE FEATURE

1. ATTRIBUTE, CHARACTER, FIELD, RECORD, FILES, TUPLES
   
   ENTITY:
   Any thing about which we can store data is called entity, for example students, city, books, college, board etc.
   • Attribute:
     The characteristics of any entity or the column of table is called Attribute, for example a student attribute are Roll No, Name, Father's Name, Age, Colour etc.
   • Character:
     The smallest piece of information is called character. There are three types of character.
   1. Numeric that is from 0 to 9
   2. Alphabetic that is from A - Z capital or small a - z.
   3. Special character that consist upon +,-,=,",;", <,> etc.
   • Field:
     The combination of related characters is called field that is name, address, city, ph-no, age, roll-no etc, for example Peshawar, Pakistan, Khalid, Imran, 2300, 20 years, etc.
   • Record:
     The combination of related field is called record that is payroll record for a person, student admission record for a student etc.
     For example student record.
     
     Roll No            Name                 Age            Qualification                   Address
     01                    Khalid Khan       25               D-COM                        Peshawar
     02                    Imran Gul           26                B-COM                       New Yark
     In above example Roll No, Name, Age, Qualification, & Address are field.
   • Tuples:
     The row of record is called Tuple.
2. KEY, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, COMPOSITE KEY


• Key: A key is data item used to identify a record.
• Primary Key:
  It is key or data item that uniquely identifies record, Primary Key is an identifies, for example a student number would be the primary key for student record.
• Secondary Key:
  A secondary key is data item that normally does not uniquely identify a record but identifier a number of record in set that be used as a secondary key for STUDENT record.
• Foreign Key:
  It is primary key field in one table while used as a foreign key in another table. It is used for linking two tables, Example.
  Table1: Customer Number, Cname, Caddress, Cphone, (here customer no is a primary key).
  Table2: Loaned Amount, Date of Issue, Custer No. (here loaned is primary key and customer no a foreign key).
• Composite Key / Concatenate Key:
  A primary key that consists two or more attribute is known as composite key, for example the following relation uses two fields. Registration No. and subject to identify each tuple. This is an example of composite key.
  
  
3. REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
   Referential integrity is a constraint on foreign key. It state that if a foreign key exist in a relation, the foreign key value must match the primary key value of some tuples in its parent relation. Referential integrity is uses to ensure that relationships between records in related tables are valid and that you don't accidentally delete or change related data.
4. USE OF WILD CARDS
   Wild Card characters as placeholders for other characters when you are specifying a value you want to find and know only part of the value.
   To find values that start with a specific letter or match a certain. In a Microsoft Access Database, you can use the following characters in the Find and Replace dialog boxes, or in queries commands, and expression, to find such things as field values, records, or file names.
   
   

MICROSOFT ACCESS (DATA BASE)
What is MS-Access?
Ms-Access is relational database management system (RDMS). Access stores and retrieves information, present requested information and automates repetitive tasks. With access you can create easy-to-use input forms. You can display your information in any way that you want and run powerful reports.
Use of MS-Access:
Ms-Access is used to store and manipulate a large amount of information. It is very easy to understand for users. Its graphical interface helps the users to create queries, forms, and reports easily. Even an inexperienced programmer can use Ms-Access to perform different activities. He can turn the invoices, files of customer names, ledger and inventory lists into relational database. The process of entering, updating and reporting information become very easy.
The Access Window:
When you first open Ms-Access, you see the Ms-Access Window showing a title bar with the Ms-Access caption and its menu bar and toolbar. The access window is the center of activity for everything that you can do in Ms-Access. From this window, you can open many other windows simultaneously each window display a different  look.

TITLE BAR
Title Bar is horizontal area located at the very top of the screen. The Title Bar display the name of Microsoft Access, the control menu and the minimize and maximize and close buttons are also contained by Title Bar.

CONTROL MENU BUTTON
Control Menu Button
This button is found in the upper left corner of the Title Bar. When you click this button, a menu appear that lets you perform certain tasks, including moving, sizing, minimizing, or closing the current application window.

MENU BAR
The Menu Bar is directly below the Title Bar and it display the menu. A menu displays a list of commands.

TOOL BAR
The Tool Bar is a group of picture, button just below the menu bar, it provide shortcut for running command.
Tool Bar provides shortcuts to menu commands. Tool Bars contain different tools. Tool Bars are located just below the Menu Bar.

STATUS BAR
The Status Bar is a horizontal area at the bottom of the Ms-Access window.
The left side of the Status Bar, displays Ready. The right side of the Status Bar tells you whether certain keyboard settings are active.
For example, if you have the Caps Lock feature turned on, the word CAPS appears in the Status Bar.

DATABASE WINDOW
This window appears whenever a database is open; it is the control center of your data base. You use the Database window to open the objects within a database, including table, queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules.
The Database window consists of three basic parts: A set of seven object buttons in a vertical row on the left side, a set of eight toolbar buttons along the top of the window, and a list of object names in the right pane.
Object Buttons:
These buttons are located in a vertical row along the left side of the Database window. Using these buttons, you can select the type of object you want to work with, for example, selecting the Form button displays a list of Form created for that database. Selecting this button also lets you create a new form or redesign an existing one.
Tool Bar Button:
You use the toolbar buttons, which are located along the top of the Database window, to change a database object in a different window or view. These buttons let you create, open or design a database object and view certain details about those database objects.
Object List:
This list displays existing objects for the database object that you select. You can choose a name from the list to display or redesign the object. You can also select what type of view you want for these objects, for example, you can view the details about your database objects, such as description, date modified, date created, and type. You can change the view of the objects in the Object List by selecting View from the Access window menu bar or by using the buttons on top of the database window (the last four buttons on the right side of the database window).
Explain the Different Object Button

1. Table:
   It is used to create, modify and manipulate tables. The tables are used to store data in the database.
2. Queries:
   It is used to create Queries, Queries are used to retrieve data from database.
3. Form:
   It is used to create Form. Forms are used to enter data in tables easily using graphical user interface. The Form consists of button, text boxes and lists etc.
4. Report:
   It is used to create Reports. Reports are used to display the information from database in different ways. The reports are used to make important decisions. The report can be based on tables or queries.
5. Pages:
   It is used to design data access pages. The data access pages are used to display the Ms-Access data on the web.
6. Macro:
   It is used to create Macro. The macro are used to perform same sequence of steps quickly and automatically. It automates different tasks repeatedly.
7. Modules:
   It is used to create Modules. A Module contain an object that stores the code of VBA (Visual Basic for Application).

EXPLAIN DIFFERENT DATA TYPES AVAILABLE IN MS - ACCESS

Ms-Access provides the following data types:

1. Text:
   Text data type is used to store alphabetic, numbers and special characters. It can store up to 255 characters. It the length of text field is not specified, the default setting is 50 characters.
2. Memo:
   Memo data type is used to store lengthy text. It is normally used to store comment etc. Memo fields can hold up to 64,000 characters.
3. Number:
   Number data type is used to store numeric data. The fields with Number data type can be used in mathematical calculation. Different types of numeric data types are as follows:
   Byte, Integer, Long Integer, Single, Double.
   The Byte, Integer and Long Integer data type cannot store decimal values. If you need to store values with up to four decimal places only, use Currency data type in preference to Single or Double lumber fields.
4. Date / Time:
   Date / Time data type is used to store date and time. MS-Access stores date in the standard format (mm/dd/yyyy).
5. Currency:
   Currency data type is used to store numbers representing Currency. The value in Currency field is rounded to two decimal places. The negative currency values are display in brackets. The values automatically include a dollar sign ($).
6. AutoNumber:
   AutoNumber data type is used to generate the next number automatically when a new record is added. It creates a unique number for each record. The value starts from 1 and is incremented by 1 in each records.
7. Yes / No:
   Yes / No data type is used to store Boolean value. The possible values in this field are True and False.
8. OLE Object:
   OLE Object stands for Object Linking and Embedding. This data type is used to enter objects from-other applications such as a spreadsheet created in Ms-Excel or a picture file.
9. Hyperlink:
   The Hyperlink data type is used to store links to other files, document or web pages in a field.

WIZARD AND TEMPLATE

1. Wizard:
   Wizard consists a series of dialog boxes that ask you design and contents questions relating to the type of presentation you which to create.
2. Template:
   A Template is pre-designed database that comes with MS-Access.

HOW TO MS-ACCESS IS STARTED OR LOADED: 

The following procedure can be used to start or load MS-Access.

1. Click Start button on task bar.
2. Point to the Program menu.
3. Click on Microsoft Access.

EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURE FOR CREATING TABLE IN MS-ACCESS 

A table is created in a database. The option Create Table in Design View is the most common ways of creating table. Different methods of creating a table are as follows:

1. Creating table in Design View.
2. Creating table by Wizard.
3. Creating table by Entering Data.

WHAT ARE TABLE VIEW AVAILABLE IN MS-ACCESS OR HOW CAN SWITCH BETWEEN THEM 

Table view is a way of looking at the table. Microsoft Access provides two table views that are design view and datasheet view.

1. Design View:
   The table view that is used to design the structure of a table is called Design View. It is used to specify name, data types, and description of fields. Primary Key is also specified or modified in this view. The structure of an existing table can also be change in design view.
2. Datasheet View:
   The table view that is used to enter, delete or modify data in a table is called Datasheet View. The table in this view is displayed in rows and columns. The name of each field is displayed at the top of the column as header. Each row contains a complete record. The table or query is opened in datasheet view to perform different operations on data in the table. These operations include adding, deleting, updating and searching data etc.

Switching Between Views 

Following procedure is used to switch between table views:

1. Click on View menu.
2. Select Datasheet View or Design View from the menu.

The table will be displayed according to the selected view option.

CREATING TABLE IN DESIGN VIEW AND WIZARD

Creating Table by Design View:

The design view is used to define the fields of a table. The window is divided into two parts. The following procedure is used to create a table by using Design View.

1. Creating new blank data base.
2. Double click Create Table in Design View. The Design View will appear.
3. Type the name of the first field in Field Name column.
4. Press tab key to move to the Data Type column, select the required data type for the field.
5. Press Tab key to move to Description column, which is used to enter comments about the field. This is optional.
6. Press Tab key to move to the Field Name for the next field.
7. Repeat the above steps for entering any number of fields in the table.

How would you Setting Primary Key: 

The following procedure is used for setting Primary Key.

1. Select the field for Primary Key.
2. Click Primary Key on Table Design Toolbar.
   OR
   Select Edit > Primary Key. The row that is chosen as Primary Key is marked will small symbol in selector button.

How You Save A Table: 

The following steps are performed to save a table

1. Click Save on Table Design toolbar, OR Select File > Save The Save As dialog box will appear
2. Enter a Table Name and Click OK. The table will saved.
   The new table will appear in the main database.

Method to Close the Database: 

1. Click on File menu from menu bar.
2. Click on Close option.
   
   OR

1. Press  Ctrl + F4.

Steps to Exit MS-Access 

1. Click on File menu from menu bar.
2. Click on Exit.
   
   OR

1. Press Alt + F4. 

Write the steps to Add Record in a Table: 

This procedure is used to add new record to the table in data sheet view. The new data is typed in the record that has an asterisk (*) on left side. It indicates the new record.

How to Edit Record in a Table: 

This procedure is used to edit record of the table in data sheet view. Edit existing record by placing the cursor in the record to be dited and making necessary changes. The arrow keys are used to move through the record grid. The previous, next first and last record buttons at the bottom of datasheet are helpful in editing the datasheet.

How Delete Record From A Tablwe: 

this procedure is used to delete a record from a table in datasheet view.

1. Placeing cursor in any field of the record to be deleted.
2. Click on Edit menu from menu bar.
3. Click Delete Record.
   
   OR

1. Placing cursor in any field of the record to be deleted.
2. Click delete Record button on the datasheet Toolbar.
   
   OR

1. Click right mouse button on record selector at the left of the record that you want to delete.
2. Press Delete key.
3. Click Yes button.

How Insert or Delete Field: 

A better method to add new fields in the use of design view. The design view provides more option to add fields quickly.

The following procedure is used to Insert a New Column or Field in the design view.

1. Select the Table in the Database Window.
2. Click on the Design Icon button to open the table in Design View.
3. Click on the first empty row in the Field Name column.
4. Type the name of the Field and select their Type.
   
   OR

1. Place the cursor where you want to insert new Field.
2. Click Right Mouse Button on the top of the field, a drop down menu will be appear.
3. Click Insert Row.

The following procedure is used to Delete a Column / Field in the Design View. 

1. Select the table in the Database Window.
2. Click on the Design Icon button to open the table in Design View.
3. Click Right Mouse Button on the top of the field, a drop down menu will be displayed.
4. Click  Delete Row.

RESIZING ROWS AND COULUMNS 

1. ROW SIZE:
   The hight of rows on a datasheet can be changed. The user can drag the gray sizing line between row labels up and down with the mouse. The hight of the rows is changed if there is any change in the hight of any row.
2. COLUMN SIZE:
   The column width on datasheet can be changed. the user can drag the sizing line between columns. The user can double click on line expand the column according to the longest value in the column. Different column on a datasheet can have different widths. The exact values can be assigned from Format > Row Height OR Format > Column Width from menu bar.

Procedure for Freezing & Hiding Column: 

Freezing Column: 

The user can freeze the columns on an Access table. It helps the user view certain columns easily it the datasheet has many column and required columns are not visible.

Follow the following steps to freezing the columns:

• Placing the cursor in any record in the column to be freeze.
• Select Format > Freeze Columns from the menu bar.

The option Format > Unfreeze can be used of unfreeze a single column.

Hiding Columns
The columns can be hidden from datasheet temporarily. The hidden columns are not be deleted from the database. The following procedure is used to hide column:

• Place the cursor in any record in the column to be hide Or highlight multiple adjacent columns by clicking and dragging the mouse along the culumn header:
• Select Format > Hide Columns from the menu bar.
  The option Format >Unhide Column can be used to unhide the columns.

Procedure for Finding Data: 

Microsoft Access provides facility to find the required data easily. The following procedure is used for finding data:

• Open the table in Datasheet View.
• Place the cursor in a field to Find Data.
• Choose Find from Edit menu.
• Enta the data to find in Find What text box.
• Select any option from Match list box.
• Click Find Next button. If the data enter in Find What text box.is found in the field, the cursor will move to that record.

If the data is not found, a message will appear showing that the data is not found.

Procedure for Replacing Data: 

Microsoft Access provides the facility to find and replace data easily. Replaceing data consists of the following steps:

• Place the cursor in a field to Find Data.
• Click Replace from Edit menu or press Ctrl + H.
• In the Find What box enter the text you want to replace.
• Select any option from Match lish box. It is used to watch entered with whole field, any part of field or start of field.
• Enter the data to replace in Replace With text box. 
• Cllick Find Next button. If the data entered is found the cursor will move to that record.
• Click on the Replace button to replace the search string. OR click on Replace All button to replace all matching data in the table.

Use of Check Spelling & AutoCorrect Option:
The spell checker can be used to indicate spelling error in text and menu fields in a datasheet. The following procedure is used to check spellin:

• Select Tools > Spelling from the menu bar to activate spell checker.

The AutoCorrect feature can automatically correct common spelling errors. Some common correction are as follows:

• Two intial capital such as HEllo WOrld.
• Capitalising the first letter of the first word of sentence.
• Anything option defined by the user.

It can be activated from Tools > AutoCorrect option.

Describ the Method of Printing a Datasheet: 

The following procedure is used to print a datasheet.

• Click Print button on the Toolbar OR Select File > Print to set more Printing Options.

Describe the Procedure of Defining Multiple Primary Key: 

The following procedure is used to define Composite Primary Key:

1. Move the mouse over the gray column next to the field, names and note that it becomes an arrow.
2. Click the mouse, hold it down and drag it over all fields that should be primary keys and release the button. Click the Primary Key button.
3. Click the Primary Key button.

Creating Table by Using Wizard:

MS-Access table wizard privides an easy way to create tables. It provides various table templates to create business and personal tables. The Wizard helps the user to create common types of tables to manage mailing lists, recepes, investments and video collection etc.

The following procedure is used to create a table using wizard.

1. Open Database window.
2. Click Tables in Object bar.
3. Double click create table by using Wizard. The table wizard will start.
   The sample table include with access are grouped into two categories. Business and Personal.
4. Select appropriate category and type of table to be created. 
5. Select appropriate fields for the table. The four video controls are used to perform the following operations.
   
6. Select the field to rename.
7. Click on Rename Field, button. The Rename Field dialog box will appear.
8. Enter new name of the field and click OK.
9. Select appropriate fields and click Next >.
10. The default name of table is the name of first sample table. It can be changed.
11. The wizrd also prompts to select a primary keyy for the table. 
12. Click Next >.
13. The final screen of wizard offers the choice to modify table design, enter data in table in datasheet view or create a form, to use to enter data.
14. The user screen also choose to display an appropriate help topic, that gives advice on entering and modifying data.
15. Select any options.
16. Click Finish.

CREATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TABLES

RELATIONSHIP: 

A relationship is a logical connection between different, entities. A relationship is established on the basis of interaction among these entites. For example, a relationship exists between a Student & Teacher because the teacher teaches the students.

CREATING RELATIONSHIP: 

The procedure for Creating Relationship between tables is as follow:

1. Start Microsoft MS-Acces.
2. Select File > New from menu. A dialog box will appear. 
3. Choose Database option and click OK.. A new dialog box will appear.
4. Enter the name of new database and click Create button. A new database will be created and the main window will appear.
5. Double click on Create table in Design View option. The Table window will appear.
6. Create a table.
7. Set the Field RegNo as primary key and save the table with StdMaster name.
8. Create the second table with the following fields.
9. Set fields RegNo and Subject as primary key and save the table as StdDetal.
10. Select tools > Relationship. The following dialog box will appear:
11. Select StdMaster table and click Add.
12. Select StdDetail table and click Add.
13. Click Close button to close dialog box. The relationship window will appear.
14. Click on RegNo in StdMaster table, drag it on RegNo StdDetail table and release the mouse. A dialog box will appear.
15. Select Enforce Referentail Integrity checkbox and click Create button... Both tables will be joined by one to many relationship.

CREATION OF QUERIES
QUERY 
A query is a statment that extracts specific information from database. A query is created by specifying fields to display from a table or another query. It can also specify criteria on One or more fields for extracting data.
The queries can select records from one or more tables in a common datasheet. The resulting collection of record is called a dynaset. The dynaset stands for dynamic subset. It is saved as a database object and can be easily used in future. The query is updated whenever the original tables are updated.
Use of Query:
A query can be used for the following purposes:

1. Extract records according to the Specifies criteria.
2. Choose the fields to display in the result.
3. Sort the record specific order.
4. Calculate fields and summarise data.

Advantages 

Some important advantages of using query are as follows:

1. Flexibility:
   Query is a flexible way of manipulating data in databases. It provide different facilities to add, deleted, modify and scearch data easily.
2. Joining:
   Query can be executed against mutiple tables. If the tables are related with, one another, the query can join these tables for extracting data.
3. Ease of Use:
   Queries are very easy to use. The user can execute queries easily to perform deferent operations on the database.

TYPES OF QUERIES
There are different types of queries. The Select Queries extract dat from tables based on specified values. The Find Duplicate queries display records with duplicate values for one or more of the specified fields. The Find Unmatched queries display records from one table that do not have corresponding values in a second table.
In general different types of queries are as follow:

1. Select Queries.
2. Action Queries.
3. Crosstable Queries.
4. Parametk Queries.
5. SQL Queries.

1. Select Queries:
   A select query is used to extract data from tables based on specified values. It gathers information and presents it in usable form. It may retrieve data from one or more tables. It displays the results in datasheet where the records can be updated. The select query can be used to group records and calculate sums, counts, averages and other types of totals.
2. Action Queries:
   An action query is used to make changes in specified records on an existing table. It is also used to create a new table. There are four types of Action Queries.
• Delete Query:
  It is used to delete a group of records from one or mare tables.
• Update Query:
  It is used to make changes to a group of records in one or more tables.
• Append Query:
  It is used to add a group of records from one or more tables to the end of one or more tables.
• Make Table Query:
  It is used to create a new table a copy the selected records in it.
3. Crosstable Queries:
   The corsstable query is used to calculate and restructure data for easier analysis. It calculates a sum, average, count or otherr types of computation of data. These queries are grouped by two types of information. One is down the left side of datasheet and the other is across the top of datasheet.
4. Parametic Queries:
   A parametic query displays a dialog box when it is executed. It gets some information from the user as parameter. These queries are used as basis for creating forms and reports.
5. SQL:
   SQL stands for Structured Qurey Language. Query mean user request where user write a statement to extract a specific data from table.

PROCEDURE TO CREATING SIMPLE QUERY:
The procedure for creating simple query is as follow:

1.  Open the databse.
2. Click on Queries button in main database window.
3. Double click Create Query in Design View.
4. Select Query window will appear. It will contain another dialog box Show Table.
5. Select the table for extracting data.
6. Clcik Add button.
7. Click Close button. The Select Query window will appear. It contains the selected table in the upper part. The bottom part contains different options for creating quer.
8. Select any field from Field list box to include it in the query in the bottom of window.
9. Add all other fields that are to be included in the query.
10. Select the sorting order from Sort list box.
11. Give any condition in Criteria field if required.
12. Click on save button on toolbar to save the query. Or select File > Save. The Save As dialog box appear.
13. Type the name of query.
14. Click OK. The query will be saved 
15. Select Run from Query, menu to execute the query and view its result.

PROCEDURE FOR EXECUTING A SAVE QUERY 
A query that has been saved on the disk can be executed later. The following procedure isused to execute a save query.

1. Open the database that contain the saved Query.
2. Click Quries botton in the Object list. The name of all save queries will appear.
3. Double click any Query name. It will be executed and result of the query will appear on the screen.

CRITERA IN QUERY & HOW IT SPECIFIED 

A condition used to limit the number of rows extracted from database is called criteria. If a query contqains any criteria, it retrieves only those records that match with the specified criteria. Criteria may be specified to extract the records of only those students who got more than 700 marks. Similarly; criteria can be used in a query if the user wants to view only those students who live in Peshawar etc.

Specifying Criteria: 

Criteria is specified with the help of wild card. Wild Cards are special symbols that are used to extrat particular records from databas.

WHAT IS JOIN & IT'S PUPOSE

A query that extracts data from multiple related tables is called join. A join uses the relationship of the tables for extracting data from the tables. A join searches the required records in the first table and then searches the corresponding record in the second table.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP & JOIN 

1. Relationship:
   A Relationship is a logical connection between different entities. A Relationship is a query extablished on the basis of interaction amoung these entitites.
2. Join:
   A Join is a query that extracts data from multiple related tables. A Join uses the relationship of the tables for extracting data from the tables.

PROCEDURE TO EXTRACT DATA FROM MULTIPLE TQABLES

The procedure to extract data from multiple tables is as following:

1. Open the database. 
2. Click on Queries button in main database window.
3. Double click Create query in Design View. Select Query window will appear. It will contain another dialogbox show.
4. Select the first table for extracting data (e.g. Class).
5. Click Add button.
6. Select the second table (Phone).
7. Click Add button.
8. Click Close button. The Select Query window will appear. It contains the selected table in the upper part. The bottom part contains different options form creating query.
9. In the bottom part of the window, select any field; from field list box to include it in the query. Field list box will contain, the field of both tables.
10. Add all other fields that are to be included in the query. 
11. Select the sorting order from Sort list box.
12. Give any condition m Criteria field if required.
13. To save the query, click on save button on toolbar. OR 
14. Select Save from File menu. The Save As dialog box will appear.
15. Type the name of Query.
16. click OK. The Query will be saved.
17. Select Run from Query menu to execute the query and view its result.

USE OF QUERY WIZARD WITH EXAMPLE

The Query Wizar in MS-Access helps the user to create a select query easily. It consist of simple steps to create query. The following procedure is used to create a select query susing query wiazrd:

1. Click Create Query by Using Wizard icon in database window to start query wazrd.
2. Select the fields to be included in the query from the first window. Selecting the Table > from Tables / Queries meny. Select the fields by clicking :> button to move the fiekd from Availble Fields list to Selected Fields. Click Double Arrow Button >> to move all of the fields to Selected Field.
3. Select another table or query to choose from fields and repeat the process of moving them to Select Fields box.
4. Click Next > when all of the fields have been selected.
5. Enter the name for the query and click finsh.

CREATING FORMS

Form & its Uses Or Advantages: 

A window that consist of visual components is called Form. Forms are used to interact with databases through grphical user interface.

A form is constructed from a collection of individual design elements. These elements are called Controls or Control Objects, and radio button etc. Different elements are used for different purposes. A textbox is used to enter data a label is used to display message to the user. 

Use of Form: 

Form is used to mainipulate database easily. It can be used to 

1. Add Data in the database,
2. Modify data in the database.
3. Delete data from the database.
4. Retrieve and view data from the database.
5. Search the required data from the database.

Advantages of Form: 

Some advantages of using forms are as follow:

1. Easier to Use:
   Form can be used by the user very easily. It contains simple graphical components that simplify the process of the data mainipulation.
2. User Friendly:
   form contain graphical components that are user-friendly. The user can use these forms by simply clicking different with mouse. 
3. No Technical Knowledge Required:
   A user can use manipulate database without any technical knowledge of databases. The visual components enable the user to interact with the database withou writing technical statements.
4. Time Saving:
   In some situation forms require less time to enter data in tables. Access provides master-details form that is used to enter many records at one time.
5. Flexibility:
   MS-Access provides different types of form. These foms can display data in different styles.

TYPES OF FORMS IN MS - ACCESS

1. Columnar Form
2. Tabular Form
3. Datasheet
4. Justified Form

1. COLUMNAR FORM:
   Columnar form is used to display one record at a time. It displays text boxes and labels. The text boxes represents the fields of table or query. The labels represent the names of field.
   Columnar Form provides different bottons to navigate through different records at the bottom.
2. TABULAR FORM:
   Tabular Form is used to display many form at one time. It displays records as a table. Each row in this form displays one record of the table. The labels are displayed on the top of each column.
   Tabular Form provides different buttons to navigate throuugh different records at the bottom.
3. DATASHEET FORM:
   Datasheet Form is used to display many records at one time. It displays records in the datasheet view of MS-Access. Each row in this form displays one record of the table. The labels are displayed on the top of each column.
   Datasheet Form provides different buttons to navigate through different records at the bottom.
4. JUSTIFIES FORM:
   Justified Form is used to display one record at a time. The fields are justified according the form window. The lables are display on the top of each column.
   Justified Form provides different button to navigate through different records at the bottom.

CREATING A FORM BY USING WIZARD

The procedure to create form by using wizard is as follow.

1. Open database.
2. Click on forms butto in Object list.
3. Double click create form by using wizard. The wizard will appear.
4. Select any table from Table / Queries list box. The fields of the selected table will appear in  Available Fields box.
5. Click on any field to include in the form. 
6. click on > button. The field move to Select Field box one by one. OR Click on >> button to include all fields in the form.
7. Click on Next button. 
8. Select any lay out for the form.
9. Click Next button
10. Select any style for the form. 
11. Click Next.
12. Enter any title.
13. Select open the form to view or enter information option.
14. Click Finish button.

CREATING A FORM BY DESIGN VIEW

The following procedure is used to create a form by Design View.

1. Click New botton on the form database windows. 
2. Select Design View and choose table or query to which the form will be associated.
3. Select View > Toolbox from menu bar to view the floating toolbar with additional option.
4. Add controls to form by clicking and dragging field  names from  Field List floating window. MS - Acces creates a text box for the value and label for the field name. OR
   Double - click  Field List window's title bar and drag all of the highlighted firlds to the form to add controls for all of the fields in Field List.

PROCEDURE TO ADD NEW RECORD THROUGH FORM
The following procedure is used to add new records through forms:

1. Open the database.
2. Click on  Form button in Obje list.
3. Double click the form to open.
4. Click the New Record button. The fields of form will become empty.
5. Enter new data is the fields. 
6. Close the form. The data entered in field will be saved automatically.

PROCEDURE TO EDIT RECORD THROUGH FORM

The following procedure is uused to edit record through forms.

1. Open the database.
2. Click on Form button in Object list.
3. Double click the Form to open.
4. Go to the record to be edited by using navigation buttons at the bottom.
5. Change the contents of the fields.
6. Go the form. The changes will be updated automatically.

Different Option for Editing Form 

The following option are helpful for modifying forms in Design View.

1. Gridlines
   Ms-Access diplays a series of lines and dots in design view to align to align form elements easily. This option can be turned on and off by selecting View > Grid.
2. Snap to Grid
   It is used to align form object to the grid. The option can be turned on and off from Format > Snap to Grid.
3. Resizing Objects
   The form object can be resized as follows:
   Click and drag the handle on the edges and corners of the elements with mouse.
4. Change Form Object Type
   The type of tthe form can be changed easily without creating a new form. The form type can be changed as follow:
• Right click on the object with the mouse.
• Selecting chnge to option.
• Select an available object type from the list.
5. Lable / Object Alignment
   Each form object and its corresponding lable are bounded. Both move together when any of them is moved with the mouse. The user can change the position of the object and lable in relation to each other. The user can click and drag the large handle at the top, left  corner of the object or lable for the purpose.
6. Tab Order
   This option is used to alter the tab order of object on form. The user can change the order as follow:
• Select View ? Tab Order .......... from nemu bar.
• Click the gray box before the row whose tab order is to be change. 
• Drag it to a new location and release the mouse button.
7. Form Appearnce
   The Form Appearnce can be changed as follows:
• Click Fill/Back Color button Formatting toolbars and click any color on palette.
• Change the color of individual object by highlighting the object and selecting a color from Font/Fore Color palette on formatting. toolbar.
• The font and size, font effect, font alignment, border width and special effect can also modified using formatting toolbar.
• The font and size3, font effect, font alignment, border width and special effect can also modified using formatting toolbar.
8. Page Header and Footer
   Headers and Footers added to a form will only appear when it is printed. The option can be used as follows:
• Select View > Page Header / Footer on the menu bar.
• Select Insert > Page Number to add Page number to these selection.
• Select Insert > Date and Time to add date and time.
• Select View > Page Header and Footer to hide these section from view in Design View.

LIST BOX & COMBO BOX? & ALSO ADDING THESE OBJECT ON FORM
List box and combo box are used to display a list of item in forms. The user can select the desired item from available items. These objects are used if the possible val;ues are small and limited for a certain field in the form. The user can entered value quickly and easily by using these objects.
These two control types differ in the number of values they display. The values in a list box are visible until the user click on the arrow button on the combo box.
Adding List Box and Combo Box:
The following procedure is used to add a list box or combo box to a form:

1. Open the form in Design View.
2. Select View > Toolbox to view the toolbox. 
3. Make sure that Control Wizard button is pressed.
4. Click the list or combo box tool button and draw the outline on form. The combo box wizard dialog box will appear.
5. Select source type for the list or combo box values and click Next >.
6. The next option depends on the selected choice in the first dialog box. The box will  appear if the user selected look up values from a table or query.
7. Select the table or query from which the values of the combo box will come.
8. Click Next > and choose fields from the table or query.
9. Click Next >.
10. Set the width of combo box by clicking & drangging the right edge of column.
11. Click Next >.
12. The next dialog box tells Access what to do with the value that is selected. Choose "Remember the value for latter use" to use the value in a macro or procedure (the value is discarded when the form is closed) OR
    Selected the field in which the value should be stored.
13. Click Next >.
14. Type the name that will appear on the box;s label.
15. Click Finish.

CHECKBOX & OPTION BUTTON

Procedure:  

The check boxes and option buttons are used to display yes / no, True / False, or On / Off values. The user can select only one value from a group of option buttons. The user can select any or all values from a group of chec boxes. These controls are typically used when five or less options are available.

Adding Checkbox & Radio Button to Form 

The following procedure is used to add a checkbox or option group to a form:

1. Click Option Group tool on toolbox and draw the area where the group will be placed o form with mouse. The Option Group wizard dialog box will appear.
2. Enter lables for the options.
3. Click the tab key to enter additional lables.
4. Click Next > after finishing; lables.
5. Select a default value if there is any and click Next>.
6. Select values for the option & click Next >.
7. Choose what should be done with value and click Next >.
8. Choose the type and style of the option group and click Next >.
9. Type the caption for the group and click Finish.

COMMAND BUTTON 

 A command button is used to execute different commands by clicking on it. The caption of the command button indicates the type of command execute by the button.

Adding Command Button: 

The following procedure is used to add a command button to a form.

1. Open the form in Design View.
2. Ensure that Control Wizard button on the toolbox is pressed.
3. Click the command button icon on toolbox and draw the button on the form. The Command Button Wizard will appear.
4. The action categories are displayed in the left list on first dialog window. The right list displays the actions in each category.
5. Select an action for the Command Button and click Next >.
6. The next few pages of options will vary based on the selceted action. Continue selecting option for Command Button.
7. Choose the appearances of button by entering caption text or selecting a picture.
8. Check Show All Picture box to view full list of available image.
9. Click Next >.
10. Enter name for the Command Button and click Finish to create the button.

REPORT

Reports are the output of a database application. The user can generate different type of report by manipulating the database. The information on the report is in different styles. The reports may contain graphs and charts etc.

The user cannot edit the data displayed on the reports. The user also cannot input data in reports. The reports are generated for printing purpose. The can also be displayed on screen and stored on the disk.

Uses of Reports

The reports are basically used for the following purposes:

• Reports present the requried information in formatted style.
• Reports provide flexibility to present the same data in different ways.
• Reports can display information with graphics and charts etc.
• Reports are very important in making important decisions.
• Reports can be used to improve the database application.
• Reports can display the result of a query.

Standard Types of Reports
The standard types of reports in MS Access are as follow:

1. Columnar Reports:
   The Columnar reports display the values of each field in each record of a table or query in one long column of text boxes. The lables indicate name of the field. The text box to the right of lable provides the values. The Columnar Report spreads the information for a single record over many rows.
2. Tabular Report:
   The Tabular Reports provide a column for each field of the records in rows under column header. Additional pages are printed in sequence if the columns do not fit on one.

How Auto Report is used to Generate a Report?
Auto Report create columnar report based on specified table or query. The following procedure is used to create a report using auto report.

1. Select the table or query from the database window.
2. Select auto report from New Object Button on Database toolbar.
   ORSelect Insert > AutoReport. The report is automatically displayed in Print View.

The format of the report output is very basic. MS-Access does not provide any formatting of the page header or footer. The user can modify the report in Design View.

Save & Close AutoReport: 

The AutoReport is not saved to the database automatically. The following procedure is followed for saving the AutoReport.

1.  Select File > Close. You are prompted to save the report.
2. Click Yes. The Save As dialog box will appear.
3. Enter a name & click OK. The report is saved to the Database Window.

The format of the report output is very basic, MS-Access does not provide any formatting of the page header or footer. The user can modify the report in design-view.

Creating Single - Table Report by Report Wizard 

The following procedure is used to create a single - table report using report wizard.

1. Open a database.
2. Click on Reports button in Object list.
3. Double click Create Report by using Wizard. The report wizard will appear.
4. Select a table from Tables / Queries list box. The fields of the selected table or query will appear in Available Fields box.
5. Click on any field to include in the report.
6. Click > on button. The field will move to Selected Field box. OR
7. Click >> button to include all fields in the report.
8. Click on Next button.
9. Select any field to specify grouping level if necessary. 
10. Click Next button. 
11. Select any field accourding to which data record will be sorted in report.
12. Click Next button.
13. Select layout option and orientation Option.
14. Click Next button.
15. Select any style for the report.
16. Type the name of the report.
17. Click Finish Button. The report will appear.

Procedure for Creating Two-Table Report by Report Wizard 

The following procedure is to create a two-table report using report wizard.

1. Open a database.
2. Click on Report button in object list.
3. Double click Create Report by using wizard. The report wizard will appear.
4. Select a table from Tables / Queries list box. The fields of the selected table or query will appear in Available Fields box.
5. Click on any field to include in the report.
6. Click on > button. The field will move to selected Field box. OR
7. Click on >> button to include all fields in the report.
8. Select the second-table from Table / Query list box.
9. Move the fields of second table in Selected Fields box.
10. Click on Next button.
11. Select any field to specify grouping level if necessary.
12. Click Next button. The next window will appear.
13. Select any field according to which data record will be sorted in report.
14. Click Next button.
15. Select Layout option and orientation option.
16. Click Next button.
17. Select any style for the report.
18. Type the name of the report.
19. Click Finish button.

Creating Report by Design View 

The following procedure is used to creating a report in Design View.

• Click New button on Reports Database Window.
• Highlight Design View and choose the data source of report from Drop-Down menu.
• Click OK.
• A blank grid with a Field Box and form element toolbar will appear. It is similar to Design View form forms.
•  Design the report; for example, double click the title bar of Field Box to add all fields to the Report at once.
• Use the handles on the elements to re-size them.
• Move them to different locations.
• Modify the look of the report by using options on formatting toolbar.
• Click Print View button at the top left corner of the screen to preview the report.

Steps to Print Report: 

The following steps or procedure is adopted for printing of report.

• Select File > Page Setup to modify page margins, size, orientation, and column setup.
• Select File > Print from the menu bar OR Print button on toolbar.

DATABASE SECURITY
It means protecting the database from unauthorised access, modification, misuse and destruction. As database contains the most crucial data of the organisation so its security is an important goal. Database administrator is responsible for developing overall polices and procedures to protect database.
Types of Security

1. External Schema (View):
   In this case the user can only view the data which is allowed to him. The remaining data is unknown to him, so he can not damage the rest of data.
2. Authorisation Rules:
   It is designed to protect the database by preventing people from unauthorised reading, writing, updating or destruction of database.
3. Data Encryption:
   For highly sensitive data, such as company financial data, data encryption is used. Encryption is the coding of data so that human can not read them. It converts the data into such form, which is not readable to human, who does not know the Encrypted Key
4. Password Protection:
5. Audit & Trail:
   Another important security tool is security log, which is a journal. Keeps a record of all attempted security violations. The violation can be simply recorded in the log.
   The log contains the following.
   • All access to database.
   • The users who requested the data.
   • The operation performed.
   • Time of occurrence.
   • The old and new value of data item.
   Now when the authorised person want to access the database, he first checks his log file. If there is any change in the database he can find and recover the data by using the log.

SPREAD SHEET

MICROSOFT EXCEL
Ms-Excel is a package (Software/Programm). Ms-Excel is used for mathematical, statistical, scientific, graphics, tabulation, database and accounting purpose. It consist of rows and columns. Columns are named as A, B, C, D.................................IV and rows are named as 1,2,3,4.........................65536. It has 256 columns and 65536 rows. Ms-Excel provides the ability to perform calculation, format reports, create charts (graphics), and even provides a simple database facility.
HOW TO START MS-EXCEL 
To start Ms-Excel follow the following steps.

1. Click start button.
2. Point out programm, a sub menu display
3. Click Ms-Excel.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANUAL AND ELECTRONIC (COMPUTER) SPREADSHEET
Electronic (Computer Spreadsheet) are far better than manual Spreadsheet in all most all aspect. We will discuss only some of the benefits of using a Electronic spreadsheet.

1. Electronic spreadsheets work thousand of times faster than the manual spreadsheet. Your work in an electronic spreadsheet is better, faster and precise than manual spreadsheet.
2. In the manual spreadsheet, if you find an error after making it, you have to erase it or you will have to make the whole worksheet again. Whereas in electronic worksheet, you can check and correct your worksheet before printing. Also you get the facilities of spell checking, finding and replacing, auto-correcting and many more, which give more part of the work to the computer and less to you.
3. You can copy the formula once you made to all other amounts in the worksheet, while in the manual worksheet you are to calculate the formula for every amount.
4. You can make your worksheet more beautiful and smart by adding charts and graphical objects, while the manual worksheet is a dumb-looking piece of white paper. No charm, no glamor.
5. The electronic worksheet is much bigger than the manual worksheet.
6. Saving your worksheets a big problem you can have with the manual work. Every time you make a worksheet for one purpose, you are to save it in a different file. Also you are to store the previous worksheets to keep track of what going on. In the electronic work, you can save them on you disk, which saves the loos of paper and you can move many worksheets on one floppy disk, USB device in your pocket. Other way, you would have to pick a bundle of papers with you.
7. Other benefits contain the tools for spell-checking, built-in formula list, different fonts and size, automatic alignment, copying and pasting, linking and many more which are difficult to be listed here. However, once you get started with a electronic worksheet, it looks damn difficult to go back to the manual method.

DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGY USE IN MS-EXCEL

WORKBOOK
Ms-Excel file is called workbook. Workbook is combination of sheets. A workbook is the file in which you work and store your data. Because each workbook can contain many sheet, you can organize various kinds of related information in a single file. By default every workbook contains three sheets. We can increase or decrease the number of sheets in workbook.

WORKSPACE
workspace as a group of workbook file. Workspace is used to save a group of workbooks in a workspace. You can open a group of workbooks in one step by creating a workspace file. A workspace file saves information about all open workbooks, such as their locations, window sizes, and screen position. The workspace file does not contain the workbooks themselves, and you must continue to save changes you make to the individual workbooks.

1. Open the workbooks you want to open as a group.
2. Size and position the workbook windows as you want them to appear the next time you use the workbooks.
3. On the File menu, click Save Workspace.
4. In the File name box, enter a name for the workspace file.

WORKSHEET / SPREAD SHEET

Worksheet is used to list and analyse data. You can enter and edit data on several worksheets simultaneously and perform calculations. Think of them as a powerful multi purpose calculator, capable of every thing from simple to complicated calculation. Each worksheet is divided into row, column and cell separate by gridlines. The mane of the sheet apear on tabs at the bottom of the workbook window. To move from sheet to sheet, click the sheet  tabs. The name of the active sheet is bold.

COLUMN
Column are vertical division of worksheet. The column name are letter. The first column is column A, and the last column is called IV. Each worksheet has 256 columns (A through IV).
ROWS
Rows are horizontal division worksheet. Each row is separated by horizontal gridlines. Rows are numbered. The first row is 1 and the last row is known as 65536. Each worksheet has 65536 rows (1 through 65536).
CELL
The intersection of a row and column is a rectangle area is called cell. Cell is the basic unit of spreadsheet. Worksheet consists of columns A,B,C,D,........... and row 1,2,3,............ Column and row when combined make a cell, such as A12, B3, F11, M921............. A cell can contain a value, a formula or a text entry.
CELL ADDRESS
Cell address (reference) are the compbination of column letter and row number. Each cell has uniqe address. For example, the upper left cell of a worksheet is A1.
GRIDLINES
The lines on the worksheet dividing it into rows and columns. These lines are normally non-printable and we easily examine the data, its rows and columns. These gridlines cut each other throughout the worksheet to make the boundaries for each cell.
FORMULA BAR
Formula bar is display below the tool bar and above the sheet column name. The formula bar is used to show the formula.
Othe bar is maximum the same is in Ms-Word.

CREATING, OPENING, RENAMING, SAVING, CLOSING, WORKBOOK/SPREADSHEET

1. CREATE A NEW WORKBOOK (Ctrl + N)
   This command is used to create a new workbook file. Follow the following steps.
• Click on File menu
• Click on New 
• To create a new, blank workbook, click the General tab, and then double click the workbook icon.
2. OPEN AN EXISTING WORKBOOK (Ctrl + O)
   This command is used to openj an existing workbook file by follow the following steps
• Click on the File menu
• Click Open
• In the Open Window select from Look in field dreive, folder, or FTP location that contains the workbook you want to open, and then locate and double click the folder that contains the workbook.
3. RENAME A WORKBOOK/FILE
   This command is used to change the name of an existing workbook or file.
• Click Open
• In the Look in box, click the drive or folder that contains the file which you want to rename.
• In the folder list, double click folders that contains the file you want.
• Right click the file you want to rename, anhd the click Rename option on the shortcut menu.
  Type the new name, and then press ENTER.
4. SAVING A WORKBOOK WITH SAVE AS OPTION (F12)
   This command is used to save a new, unnamed workbook or to save a workbook with a new name.
• Click on File menu, Click Save As
• In the Save As window Save in field select the drive and folder where you want to save the workbook.
• In the File name box, type a name for the workbook.
• Click Save or press Enter.
5. SAVE AN EXISTING WORKBOOK WITH SAVE OPTION (Ctrl + S)
   This command is used to save a workbook with the same name or to save new workbook first time.
• Click Save in File menu or press Ctrl + S.
6. CLOSING A WORKBOOK/SPREAD SHEET (Ctrl + F4 or Ctrl + W)
   This command is used to close an opened workbook by follow the following steps:
• Click on the File menu
• Click on Close option or press Ctrl + W or Ctrl + F4.
  
  To close all open workbooks/spread sheet without exiting the program, hold down SHIFT, click on the File menu and then click Close All. 

 EDITING FUNCTION

1. UNDO (Ctrl + Z)
   This procedure is used to undo any changes you mad. To undo any changes follow the following steps
   
   • Click Undo in Edit menu on Menu Bar
   OR
   UNDO MISTAKES
   • To undo recent actions one at a time, click Undo
     Tp imdp severa; actopms at pmce. c;ocl tje arrow mext to Undo and select from the list.
     Microsoft Excel reverses the selected action and all actions above it.
2. REDO (Ctrl + Y)
   This procedure is used to reverse the action of the Undo command. To use4 Redo follow the following steps:
   
   • Click Redo in Edit menu on Menu bar.
   OR
   To Redo one action at a time, click Redo.
   To Redo more than one action at a time click the arrow next to and the click the Redo icon in Standard tool bar.
3. FILL (Ctrl + D or Ctrl + R)
   This command is used to copies the contents and format of the cell or selected into the cells, down, up, right, and left any one. Follow the following steps.
   
   • Select the range which you want to fill 
   • Point to Fill in Edit menu
   • Select Dowin, Up, Right or Left any one.
4. AUTO FILL
   • Select the cell that contain the data you want to copy.
   • Drag the fill handle across the cells you want to fill, and then release the mouse button.
     OR
   • Enter first cell value and the select range wich you want to fill.
   • Point to fill in Edit menu and click on Series.
   • A Series dialog box appear select different option.
   • Enter the increase value in Step Value Box and end value in the Stop Value Box.
5. DELETE (DEL.key)
   This procedure is used to delete cells, row, or column .
   
   • Select cells, row, or column you want to delete
   • On edit menu Click Delete.
   • Select any radio button from Delete Dialog Box.
   • Press OK button.
6. CUT (MOVE) Cell Entries.(Ctrl +X & Ctrl + V)
   To cut a cell or range of cells contents to another location. Follow the following steps.
   
   • Select the cell or range of cell you want to cut or move.
   • Click on Edit menu.
   • Click Cut. 
   • Move to the cell or select the cell where you want to move.
   • Click on the Edit menu 
   • Click Paste option.
     OR by short cut key
   • Select cell or range of cells 
   • Press Ctrl + X.
   • Move to the cell or select cell where you want Cut.
   • Press Ctrl + V.
7. COPY CELL ENTRIES (Ctrl + C and Ctrl + V)
   To copy a cell or range of cells contents to another location. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Select the cell or range of cells you want to copy.
   • Click on the Edit menu.
   • Click Copy.
   • Move to the cell or select the cell where you want to copy.
   • Click on the Edit menu.
   • Click Paste option.
     Or by short cut key 
   • Select cell or range of cells and then press Ctrl + C. 
   • Move to the cell or select cell where you want to Copy.
   • Press Ctrl + V.
8.  PASTE (Ctrl + V)
   To paste procedure is used to insert the contents of the clipboard at the insertion point. This command is only available if you have cut or copied an object, text, or contents of a cell or range of cells. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Click on Pastte in edit menu. Or press Ctrl + V. 
9. CLEAR
   This procedure is used to erase or remove the contents of a cell or a range of cell.
   
   • Select the cells you want to clear.
   • Click on the Edit menu.
   • Point to Clear.
   • Click any one from (All, Contents, Formats or Comments).
   Or
   
   • Select the cell or range of cells.
   • Press Delete key.
10.  FIND TEXT (Ctrl + F)
    This procedure is used to find / search selected cells or sheet for the character you specify follow the following steps:
    
    • Click on Edit menu in Menu Bar.
    • Click on Find, a find dialog box appear.
    • Type the character to search in the Find What Field.
    • Click on  Find Next to find one by one.
11. REPLACE TEXT: (Ctrl + H)
    This procedure is used to replace character or word with another character or word in the current worksheet. To replace a particular word or piece of character, follow the following steps:
    
    • Click on Edit menu on Menu Bar.
    • Click Replace, a replace dialog box appear.
    • Type the character to search in the Find Field.
    • Type the character or word to replace in Replace With Field.
    • Click Replace to replace one by one,  Or
      Click Replace All to replace all words.

 INSERTING

1.  HEADER AND FOOTER
   A header is text added to the top margin of page and footer is text added to the bottom margin of page.
   The following procedure is used to insert / change header and footer at each page in a worksheet.
   
   • Click on the worksheet to which put header and footer.
   • Click on the View menu.
   • Click on Header or Footer.
   • Click in the Left section, Center section, or Right section box, enter any text or data for header or footer or click the the buttons to insert on header or footer othe information - such as the page number - that you want in that section.
2. INSERT CELLS / INSERT BLANK CELL
   This command is used to insert a cell or range of cells in a worksheet. Inserts cells starting at the insertion point. You can choose to shift other cells in the table to the right or down.
   
   • Select the number of cells as you want to insert.
   • Click on the Insert menu.
   • Click Cells.
   • A dialog box appear on screen.
   • Click Shift cells right or Shift cell down radio button.
3. INSERT ROW
   Insert a Row
   This procedure is used to insert a row in a worksheet, follow the following steps.
   
   • Click a cell in the row where you want to insert a row.
   • Click on Insert menu.
   • Click on Row.
   TO INSERT MULTIPLE ROWS
   This procedure is used to insert more than one row in a worksheet. Follow the following steps.
   
   • Select cells in the column where you want to insert rows.
   • Click on Insert menu.
   • Click on Rows.
4. INSERT COLUMN
   Insert a column (Single Column)
   This command is used to insert a column in a worksheet. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Click a cell in the column where you want to insert a column.
   • Click on Insert menu.
   • Click on Column.
   INSERTION OF MULTIPLE COLUMNS
   This command is used to insert range of columns in a worksheet. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Select range of cells in the column where you want to insert column.
   • Click on Insert menu.
   • Click on Column.
5. WORKSHEET
   Insert a new Worksheet
   This procedure is used to add a single new worksheet to the left of selected sheet. tab.
   
   • Click on the Insert menu.
   • Click on Worksheet.
   INSERT MULTIPLE WORKSHEETS
   This procedure is used to add new multiple worksheets to the left of selected sheet tab.
   
   • Hold down SHIFT.
   • Click the number of worksheet tabs you want to add in the open workbook.
   • Click on Worksheet in Insert menu.
    

WORKING WITH FORMULA 

What is Formula? 

A formula is an equation that performs operations on worksheet data. Formula can perform mathematical operations, such a addition and multiplication, or they can compare worksheet values or join text. Formula can refer to other cells on the same worksheet, cells on other sheets in the same workbook, or cells on sheets in other workbooks.

1. ENTERING FORMULA WITH THE HELP OF FORMULA BAR
   • Click the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
   • To start the formula with the function, click Edit Formula Symbol (=) in the formula bar.
   • Click the down arrow next to the Functions box. 
   • Click the function you want to add to the formula. If the function does not appear in the list, click More Functions for a list of additional functions.
   • Enter the argument that is reference of cell or value.
   • When you complete the formula, press ENTER.
2. ENTERING FORMULA DIRECTLY IN TO A CELL
   This procedure is used to enter a formula directly in cell in an opened sheet.
   • Click the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
   • Type = (an equal sign).
   • Enter the formula and press Enter key.
   For example in above figure:
   =SUM(A1:A3) equals 6
   =PRODUCT (A1:A3) equal 6
   =2+3*4 equal 14
3. USE OF ARITHMETIC & LOGICAL FORMULA
   • Use Arithmetic Formula
     
     Formula calculate values in a specific order. A formula in Microsoft Excel always begins with an equal sign (=). The equal sign tells Excel that the succeeding characters constitute a formula. Following the equal sign are the elements to be calculated (the operands), which are separated by calculation operator. Excel calculates the formula from left to right, according to a specific order for each operator in the formula. You can change the order of operation by using parentheses.
     In the example below, the parentheses around the first part of the formula force Excel to calculate B4+25 first and then divide the result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5, and F5.
     =(B4+25)/SUM(D5:F5)
     OR
     =(2+3)/5 first calculate 2+3 is equal to 5 and the divide by 5 result is 5. It is arithmetical formula. 
   • Logical Formula
     Formula that calculate values and gives result true or false is called logical formula. the If function is called logical function. The IF worksheet function checks a condition that must be either true or false. If the condition is true, the function returns one value; if the condition is false; the function returns another value. The function has three arguments: the condition you want to check, the value to return if the condition is true, and the value to return if the condition is false.
     =IF(logical_text,value_if_true,value_if_false)
     e.g. =IF(B4<10,"Less than 10","equal or greater than 10")
     if value in B4 is less than 10 it will give result Less than 10, if value in B4 not less than 10 it will give result Equal or greater than 10.

EDIT FORMULA

This procedure is used to edit a formula for modification.

1. Double click the cell that contains the formula you want to edit or press F2.
2. Make changes to the formula.
3. Press Enter button.

Display Formula / Values in a cell 

This procedure is used to display formula or formula values (result) in a cell of a sheet.

Displaying formula

For displaying formula use the following steps:

1. Click on Tools menu on menu bar.
2. Click on option.
3. Option dialog box display on screen.
4. Click on View Tab.
5. Click on Formula check box to tick it.
6. Click OK button.

Displaying Values of Formula (Result) 

For displaying formula values (result) use the following steps:

1. Click on Tool menu on menu bar.
2. Click on Option.
3. Option Dialog box display on screen
4. Click on View Tab.
5. Click on Formula Check Box to UN-check it.
6. Click OK button.

Freeze Formula Value 

This procedure is used to freeze the formula value that is if we change the values of the cells given in formula range the value of the formula does not change from it previous calculated value.

Step:

1. Click on Tool menu.
2. Click on Option an option dialog box display on screen.
3. Click on calculation tab on option dialog box..
4. Click on manual radio button to on it (check).
5. Click on OK button.

If you want to recalculate press F9 key on key board.

Relative, Absolute and Mixed Cell Reference 

A Cell or range of references
A reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet and tells Microsoft Excel where to look for the values or data you want to use in a formula. With references, you can use data contained in different part of a worksheet in one formula or use the value from one cell in several formulas. You can also refer to cells on other sheets in the same workbook, to other workbooks, and to data in other programms. References to cells in other workbooks are called external references. References to data in other programms are called remote references.

Relative References  

Relative cell references, which are references to cells relative to the position of the formula. Relative references automatically adjust when you copy them. 

When you create a formula, references to cells or ranges are usually based on their position relative to the cell that contains the formula. In the following example, cell A5 contains the formula =SUM(A1:A3) Microsoft Excel finds the value from A1 to A5. this known as relative reference.

When you copy a formula that uses relative references, Excel automatically adjusts the references in the pasted of the formula. In the following example, the formula in cell A5 =SUM(A1:A3), which is from A1 to A3, has been copied to cell B5. Excel has adjusted the formula in cell B5 to =Sum(B1:B3), which refers to the cells. from B1 to B3.

Absolute Reference 

Absolute references, which are cell references that always refer to cells in a specific location. If a dollar sign precedes the letter and / or number, such as $A$1, the column and / or row reference is absolute. Absolute references don't adjust when you copy them.

The Difference Between Relative & Absolute References

If you don't want Excel to adjust references when you copy a formula to a different cell, use an absolute reference. For example, if your formula multiplies cell A2 with cell C2=(A2*C2) and you copy the formula to another cell, Excel will adjust both references. You can create an absolute reference to cell A2 by placing a dollar sign ($) before the parts of the reference that do not change. To create an absolute reference to cell A2, for example, add dollar signs to the formula as shown in the follows figure =$A$2*B5
In cell C2 we enter formula =$A$2*C2. We copy this formula from C2 to C3 and upto C5. The value of B2 change because it is relative and the value of $A$2 does not change because it is absolute value.

Mix Cell Reference
If you want Excel to adjust references when you copy a formula to a different cell, use an absolute reference and relative both. For example, if your formula divide cell C2 by $B2 and multiply by 100 as in D2 =(C2/$B2*100) and you copy the formula to another cell, Excel will adjust both references. You can create a relative references to cell C2 and an absolute reference to column B by placing dollar ($) sign before the part of the reference that don not change and relative to row 2 that change its value from 2 to 4. To create an absolute reference to cell A2, for example, add dollar signs to the formula as shown in the follows figure
=$A$2*B5
In cell D2 we enter formula =C2/$B2*100. We copy this formula from D2 to D3 and D4. The value of C2 change because it is relative and the value of $B does not change because it is absolute value and the value of 3 in $B3 changes because it is relative and 100 is constant so =C2/$B2*100 is Mixed formula.

Switching Between Relative and Absolute References
 If you created a formula and want to change relative references to absolute (and vice versa), select the cell that contains the formula. In the Formula Bar, select the reference you want to change and press F4. Each time you press F4. Excel toggles through the combinations: absolute column and absolute row (for example, $C$1); relative column and absolute row (C$1); absolute column and relative row ($C1); and relative column and relative row(C1). For example, if you select the address $A$1 in a formula and press F4, the reference becomes A$1. Press F4 again and the reference becomes $A1, and so on.

USE OF BUILT IN FUNCTION
About Using Function to Calculate Values
Functions are predefined formulas that perform calculation by using specific values, called arguments, in a particular order, or structure, for example; the SUM function adds values or ranges of cells.

Arguments
Arguments can be numbers, text, logical values such as TRUE or FALSE. The argument you designate must produce a valid value for that argument. Arguments can also be Constants formulas, or other functions. For more information about using a function as an argument for another function, also known as nesting functions, click.

Structure
The structure of a function begins with the function name, followed by an opening parenthesis, the arguments for the function separated by commas, and a closing parenthesis. If the function starts a formula, type a equal sign (=) before the function name. As you create a formula that contains a function, the Formula Palette will assist you.

1. DATE AND TIME FUNCTION
   
   • DATE
     This function is used to return a particular date.
     Syntax
     =DATE(year, month, day)
     Year
     The year argument can be one to four digits. Excel interprets the year argument according to the date system you are using.
     =DATE(2004,2,19) equals February 19th, 2004.
   • TIME
     This function is used to return a particular time according to a specified format.
     Syntax
     =TIME(hour,minute,second)
     Hour is a number from 0 (zero) to 23 representing the hour.
     Minute is a number from 0 to 59 representing the minute.
     Second is a number from 0 to 59 representing the second.
     Example
     TIME(12, 0, 0) equal to 12:00:00 PM
     TIME(16, 45, 10) equal to 04:45:10 PM
     TEXT(TIME(23, 18, 14), "hh:mm:ss AM/PM" equal to "11:18:14 PM"
     In the above figure
     =TIME(18, 12, 15) equal to 06:12 PM or 18:12:15
    
2. CONCATENATE
   This function is used to joins several text strings into one text string.
   Syntax =CONCATENATE (text1, text2,.....)
   Text1, text2..... are 1 to 30 text items to be joined into a single text item. The text items can be text strings, number or single - cell references.
   Remarks
   The "&" operator can be used instead of CONCATENATE to join text items.
   Example
   CONCATENATE("Total","Value") equals "Total Value". This is equivalent to typing
   " Total"&" "&"Value"
   Suppose in a stream survey worksheet, C2 contains "species", C5 contains "brook trout", and C8 contains the total 32.
   CONCATENATE("Stream population for", C5," "C2," is ", C8,"/mile")
3. SUM
   This function is used to Sum two or more number.
   For example:
   =SUM(2,4) To add 2, 4 the result is 6.
   =SUM(A1:A10) To add number from cell A1 to cell A10 etc.
4. IF
   Return one value if a condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another value if the evaluate to FALSE.
   Use IF to conduct conditional test on values and formulas.
   Syntax
   IF(logical_test,value_if_true, value_if_false)
   Logical_text is any value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE.
   For example, A10=100 is a logical expression; if the value in cell A10 is equal to 100, the expression evaluates to TRUE. Otherwise, the expression evaluates to FALSE. This argument can use any comparison calculation operator.
   Value_if_true is the value that is returned if logical_test is TRUE. For example, =IF(A1>10,"Greater","Less"), if the value in cell A1>10 True the result will be Greater. Value if false is the value that is returned if logical test is FALSE
   For example, =IF(A1>10,"Greater","Less") if the value in cell A1>10 False the result will be Less.
5. NESTE IF FUNCTION 
   You can use IF in nested form in the following example.
   =IF(B2>=60,"First",IF(B2>=40,"Second",IF(B2>=33,"Thrid",IF(B2<33,"Fail))))
6. MAX 
   Return the largest number in a set of values.
   =MAX(number1,number2,......)
   Number1, number2,....... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the maximum value.
   Example
   If A1=10, A2=7, A3=9, A4=27 AND A5=2 then:
   =MAX(A1:A5) equal to 27
   =MAX(A1:A5, 30) equal to 30
7. MIN
   Returns the smallest number in a set of values.
   Syntax
   =MAX(number1,number2,.......)
   Number1, number2,...... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the minimum value.
   Example
   If A1=10, A2=7, A3=9, A4=27 AND A5=2 then:
   =MIN(A1:A5) equal to 2
   =MIN(A1:A5, 0) equal to 0
8. AVERAGE
   This function returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments.
   Syntax
   AVERAGE(number1,number2,......)
   Number1, number2, ...... are 1 to 30 numeric arguments for which you want the average.
   Example
   If A1=10, A2=7, A3=9, A4=27 AND A5=2 then:
   =AVERAGE(A1:A5) equal to 11
   =AVERAGE(A1:A5, 5) equal 10
   =AVERAGE(A1:A5) equals
   =SUM(A1:A5)/COUNT(A1:A5) equal to 11
9. COUNT
   This function is used to counts the number of numeric cells within a range.
   =CONT(range)
   For example in figure
   =COUNT(A1:A6) equals 4 because there are 4 numeric between A1 to A6
   COUNTA: This function is used to Counts the number of cells that have alphabetic data or numeric data or alphanumeric data.
   Syntax
   =COUNTA(range)
   for example in above figure
   =COUNTA(A1:A6) equal to 5
   because there are f fill cells between A1 to A6
   COUNTBLANK: This function is used to counts the number of blank cells in specified range.
   Syntax
   =COUNTBLANK(range)
   In the given figure
   =COUNTBLANK(A1:A6) EQUAL 2
10. NOW()
    Return the current date and time in cell.
11. MONTH
    Return the month of a date represented by a serial number. The month is given as an integer, ranging from 1 (January) to 12 (December).
    Syntax
    MONTH("Year/Month/Day")
    Example
    MONTH("6-May") equal to 5
    MONTH(2004/04/01") equal to 4
12. DAY
    Return the day of a date represented by a serial number. The is given as an integer, ranging from 1 to 31.
    Syntax
    DAY("Year/Month/Day")
    =Day("4-Jan") equal to 4
    =DAY("15-Apr-2012") equal to 15
    =DAY(("8/11/2012") equal to 11
    =DAY("2012/10/10") equal to 10
13. YEAR
    Return the year corresponding to a date. The year is returned as an integer in the range 2000 to 2999
    Syntax
    YEAR("Year/Month/Day")
    For example =YEAR("7/5/2012") equal to 2012
    =YEAR(2006/05/01") equal to 2006
14. UPPER
    This function is used to change the text in to upper case.
    Syntax
    UPPER(text)
    Text is the text you want to converted to uppercase. Text can be a reference or text string.
    Example
    =UPPER("total") equal to TOTAL
    =If A1 contains "gcms", then:
    =UPPER(A1) equal to "GCMS"
15. LOWER
    This function is used to converts all uppercase letters in a text string into lowercase.
    Syntax
    =LOWER(text)
    Text is the text you want to convert to lowercase.
    LOWER does not change characters in text that are not letters.
    Example
    =LOWER("GCMS") equal to "gcms"
    =LOWER("Apt.2B) equal to "apt.2b"
16. LEFT
    LEFT returns the first character or characters in a text string, based on the number of characters you specify.
    Syntax
    =LEFT(text, num_chars)
    Text is the text string that contains the characters you want to extract.
    Num_chars specifies the number of characters you want LEFT to extract.
    
    • Num_chars must be greater than or equal to zero.
    • If num_chars is greater than the length of text, LEFT returns all of text.
    • If num_chars is omitted, it is assumed to 1.
    Example
    =LEFT("Sale Price",4) equal to "Sale"
    If A1 contains "KHALID", then:
    =LEFT(A1) equal to "K"
17. RIGHT
    RIGHT returns the last character or characters in a text string, based on the number of characters you specify.
    Syntax
    RIGHT(text, num_chars)
    Text is text string containing the characters you want to extract.
    Num_chars specifies the number of characters you want RIGHT to extract.
    Num_chars must be greater than or equal to zero.
    If num_chars is greater than length of text, RIGHT returns all of text.
    If num_chars is omitted, it is assumed to be 1.
    Example
    =RIGHT("Sale Price", 5) equal to "Price"
    =RIGHT("KHLID") equal to "D"

TOOLS AND DATA

1. SPELL CHECK (F7)
   This procedure is used to checks spelling in the active workbook. To apply spell check follows the following Steps:
   
   • Click on Spell in Tools Menu.
   • Spell check dialog box appear.
   • Select anu suggestion for every word.
   • Click on Change button.
   • IF you don't select any option then press Ignore button
2. AUTO CORRECT
   This procedure is used to correct word automatically. As you enter a word computer automatically replace. It to its store style.
   
   • One the Tool menu, click AutoCorrect.
   • In the Replace box, type a word or phrase that you often want to replace e.g. usu.
   • In the With box, type the word that you want replace with e.g. usually.
   • Click Add.
3. PROTECTION
   This procedure is used to protect a workbook or worksheet. To protect a sheet than you cannot change the content of cell.
   
   • Click on Tool menu.
   • Point to Protection, in drop down menu click Protect Sheet or Protect Workbook. OR Protect and Shared Workbook.
   • Click different option, enter password in Protect Sheet dialog box. And click on OK button.
4. DATA SORTING AND FILTERING DATA MENU
   • SORT
     This command is used to rearranges the information in selected rows or cells alphabetically, numerically, or by date in ascending or descending order.
   • Select rang of cells to sort.
   • Click on the Data menu.
   • Click on Sort a sort dialog box display on screen.
   • Select column on which you want sort as shown above Column A and you may also select other option.
   • Click Sort Ascending or Descending.
   • Click OK button.
   •  FILTER
     Filtering is a quick and easy way to find and work with a subset of data in a list. A filtered list displays only the rows that meet the criteria you specify for a column, Microsoft Excel provides two command for filtering lists:
     
     • AutoFilter, which includes filter by selection, for simple criteria.
     • Advance Filter, for more complex criteria.
     Unlike sorting, filtering does not re-arrange a list. Filtering temporarily hides rows, which you do not want to display.
     
     • Select range of cells to filter.
     • Click on the Data menu.
     • Click Filter.
     • Select AutoFilter or AdvanceFilter.
     • Click arrow in corner of select range and apply different option.

FORMATTING

1. FORMAT CELL AND TEXT
   This procedure is used to change the layout (format) of a cell or range of cell that is font, border, alinement etc.
   
   • Select a cell or range of cells you want to format.
   • Click on the Format menu.
   • Click Cell.
   • Select different option from Format Cell Dialog Box.
   • Click OK.
   TO INSERT DECIMAL PLACES
   
   • Select a cell of range of cells you want to format.
   • Click on the Format menu.
   • Click Cells.
   • Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
   • Select number from category list box.
   • Different format number appear, select any format from them
   • Enter number of decimal you want in decimal places box.
   • Press OK button.
   TO CONVERT SELECT CELLS IN TO TEXT
   This procedure is used to convert selected cells into text even if numerical will be treated as text and no calculation is performed on text.
   
   • Select a cell or range of cells you want to format.
   • Click on the Format menu. 
   • Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
   • Select Text from category list box.
   • Press OK button.
2. BORDER AND SHADING
   
   • BORDER
     This procedure is used to select border for selected cells.
     
     • Select the cells you want to add borders to. 
   • Click on the Format menu.
   • Click Cells.
   • Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
   • Click on Border tab, different border option appear.
   • Select different option according to your requirement.
   • Press OK button. 
   • SHADING
     This procedure is used to select fill color for selected cells.
   • Select the cell or range of cells, you want to add shad to.
   • Click on arrow next to Fill Colour button on Formatting Toolbar.
   • Select any color from color palette.
3. POSITIONING CELLS AND TEXT
   This procedure is used to change the position of the selected cells. That is horizontal and vertical etc. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Select the Cells you want to change the position.
   • Click on the Format menu.
   • Click Cells.
   • Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
   • Click on Border tab, different border options are appeared.
   • Click on Alignment tab, different options are appeared.
   • Select Left or Right or Center from alignment text box. 
   • Select Top or Bottom or Center or Justify from vertical text box. 
   • Select other option if you want.
   • Press OK button.
   
   
4. APPLY AN AUTOFORMAT TO A RANGE
   This procedure is used to convert the selected cell data into preset table format.
   
   • Select the range, you want to format.
   • On the Format menu, click AutoFormat.
   • Click the Format you want.
    
5. CATEGORIES OR A NUMBER
   There are three categories of a number are General, Number and Currency. General format cells have no specific number format, Number format is used for general monetary values. To convert format of selected range into any category in to any category follow the following steps.
   
   • Select a cell range of cell you want to format.
   • Click on Format menu.
   • Click on Cells.
   • Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
   • Select General or Number or Currency from category list box.
   • Different format number appear, select any format from them.
   • Enter number of decimal you want in decimal places box.
   • Press OK button.
    
6. ABOUT CELL AND RANGE REFERENCE
   A reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet and tells Microsoft Excel where to look for the values or data you want to use in a formula. With references, you can use data contained in different parts of a worksheet in one formula or use the value from one cell in several formulas. You can also refer to cells on other sheets in the same workbook, to other workbooks, and to data in other programms. References to the cells in other workbooks are called remote references.
   The A1 vs. the R1C1 reference style;
   The A1 Reference Style
   By default, Excel uses the A1 reference style, which refers to columns with letters (A through IV, for a total of 256 column) and refers to rows with numbers (1 to 65536). These letters and numbers are called row and column headings. To refer to a cell, enter the column letter followed by the row number. For example, D50 refers to the cell at the intersection of column D and row 50. To refer to a range of cells, enter the reference for the cell in the upper-left corner of the range, a colon (;), and then reference to the cell in the lower-right corner of the range. The following are examples of of references.
   =sum(A1:A10) A1:A10 is range cell reference that is from A1 to A10.
7. ALIGNMENT
   This procedure is used to align data at the top, center, bottom, left or right of a cell. Follow the following steps:
   
   • Select cells you want to change Alignment.
   • On the Format menu, click Cell, and then click the Alignment tab, select left or right etc from Horizontal box.
   • In the Vertical box, click top, bottom, center or justify.
8. DATE AND TIME 
• DATE:The procedure is used to select style for date and time. Follow the following steps.

• Select a cell or range of cells to change date of it. 
• Click on the Format menu.
• Click Cells.
• Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
• Select Date from category list box.
• Click  Ok button. 
• TIME 
  This procedure to select style for time. Follow the following steps.
• Select a cell or range of cells to change Time of it.
• Click on the Format menu.
• Click Cells.
• Format Cell Dialog Box appear.
• Select Time from category list box.
• Select Time Style from type list box.
• Click Ok button

WORKING WITH CHART 

1. CREATE CHART
   The procedure is used to create chart. Follow the following steps.
• Select cells that contain the data that you want to appear in the chart. If you want the column and row labels to appear in the chart, include the cells that contain them in the selection.
• Click Chart Wizard or click the Chart in the Insert menu.
• Select chart type.
• Follow the instructions in the Chart Wizard.
• At the last click on Finish button.
2. EDITING CHART
   CHANGE CHART LABELS, TITLES AND OTHER TEXT
   Most chart text - such as category axis label, data series names, legend text, and data labels - is linked to the cells on the worksheet used to create the chart. If you edit the text of these items on the chart, they are no longer linked to the worksheet cells. To change the text of these items and maintain links to worksheet cells, edit the text on the worksheet.
   Change Category Axis Lables
   • To change category axis labels on the worksheet, click the cell that contains the label name you want to change, type the new name, and than press ENTER.
   • To change category axix labels on the chart, click the chart, and then click Source Data on the Chart menu. In the Category Axis Labels box on the Series tab, specify the worksheet range you want to use as category axix labels. You can also type the labels you want to use, separated by commas.
   
   Change Data Labels
   
   • to change data labels on the worksheet, click the cell that contains the information you want to change, type new text or value, and the press ENTER.
   • To change data labels on the chart, click once on the data label you want to change to select the data labels for the entire series, and then click again to select the individual data label. Type the new text or value, and then press ENTER.
     If you change the data label text on the chart, it is no longer linked to worksheet cell.
   
   Edit Chart and Axis Titles
   
   • Click the title you want to change.
   • Type the new text you want.
   • Press ENTER.

LEGEND

Legend is box that identifies the pattern or color that are assigned to the data series or categories in a chart.

Add A Legend To A Chart

1. Click the chart to which you want to add a Legend.
2. On the Chart menu, click Chart Options, and then click the Legend tab.
3. Select the Show Legend check box.
4. Under Placement,click the option you want.

Change Colour In A Surface Chart 

To format the colors of the levels in a surface chart, you must format the Legend Key.

1. If the chart does not have a Legend, add one.
2. Click the Legend once to select it, and then click the Legend Key that represents the surface level you want to change.
3. On the Format menu, click Selected Legend Key, and then click the Patterns tab.
4. Click the color you want, and then repeat steps 2 and 3 for each level you want to format.

Font and Rotated Text 

You can format text in a chart as you would any other text. Click the text or item, then change the font, size, and colour by clicking the buttons on the Formatting tool bar.

Change the Font & Size of Text in a Chart
If a chart Title or Text Box is linked to a worksheet cell, you can change the formatting of all characters in the tiltle or text box at the same time, but you cannot change individual characters.

1. Click the chart text, or select the individual characters you want to format.
   To change the formatting for all of the text in the chart at the same time, click the blank area between the border of the chart and the Plot Area to select the Chart Area.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click a button for the format which you want.

Rotate Text in a Chart Title or Along an Axis
You can rotate, or "Angle", text in a chart Title or along an Axis. You cannot rotate Legend text.

1. Click the Axis or the Title you want to format.
2. If you click an Axis, click Selected Axis on the Format menu.
   if you clicked an Axis Title, click Selected Chart Title on the Format menu.
3. Click the Alignment tab.
   If you don't see the Alignment tab, click Cancel, click outside of the text you want to format, and then repeat steps 1-3.
4. To rotate text, under Orientation, click a degree point, or drag the indicator to the posittion you want.

PRINTING  

1. SELECTING PRINTER
   Set the Printer
   This procedure is used to select printer name for printing.
   Follow the following steps:
• Click the worksheet.
• On the File menu, click Print.
• Under Printer, click arrow to next name list.
• Printer will be appear, select any one.
• Click OK button.
2. PRINT SELECTED AREAS
   Print Selected Area in the Active Sheet
   This procedure is used to print selected area of active. If you select a range of cells to print follow the following steps:
   
   • On the File menu, click Print.
   • Print dialog box appear.
   • Click Select Radio button.
   Page Selection
   Set the Size of the Paper
   
   1. On the File menu, click Page Setup, and then click the Page tab.
   2. In the Paper size box, click the size of paper you want, & press OK button.