PHYSICAL CONNECTION OF NETWORK

Internet:

The explanation above covers the connections between computers on a local network, but what connection methods are used for the Internet? Your Internet service provider or the companies for which you work probably use one of the fast internet connections, which are described in table. This following table summarizes the most common Internet connection types and their speeds.

 

Connection Type	Speed	Details
DSO	64 kilo bits per second	1/24 of T1 line or one T1 channel
ISDN	128 kilo bits per second	2 DSO working together to provide a high-speed data connection
T1	1.54 megabits per second	24 DSO lines working as one, with 23 carrying information and one other line. This type of connection has become common for schools and business.
T3	43.2 megabits per second	672 DSO lines working together. This method is the equivalent of T1 lines.
OC3	155 megabits per second	All OC lines are optical & do not use traditional phone lines are quite fast, very expensive, & are often found at telecommunications companies.
OC12	622 megabits	The equivalent of 366 T1 lines or 8064 phone lines.
OC48	2.5 gigabits per second	The equivalent of 4 OC12 lines.

 

It is common to find a T1 connection lines in many places. Sometimes you can get a cable modem speeds comparable to a T1 line. Note the cable modems were not listed in above mentioned table simple because their actual speeds vary greatly depending on a variety of circumstances, including how many people in If you are using a cable modem in the immediate area.Unless you work in telecommunications you are not likely to encounter OC lines.

 

Data Transmission

We have briefly seen the physical connection methods, but how is data actually transmitted? To transmit data, a packet is sent. The main purpose of a cable to transfer packets from one machine. It does not matter whether that packet is a part of document, video, image or just some internal signal from the computer. This fact begs the question: What, exactly, is a packet? As we discussed earlier, everything in a computer is ultimately stored as 1s & 0s, called bits, which are grouped into sets of eight, called a byte. A packet, also referred to as a diagram, is a certain number of bytes divided into a header and a body. A 20-byte packet header section at the beginning. The header tells you where the packet is coming from, where it is going and more. The body contains the actual data in binary form and you want to send. Above routers and switches his work to be read as part of a packet header. This packet should be sent to how they determine.

Ø  Protocols
there are different types of network communications for different purpose. The different types of network communication are called protocols. A protocol is basically an agreement on a communication method. In fact, this definition is how the word "protocol" is used in standard, non-computer use. Each protocol has a specific purpose and normally operates on a certain logical port.
Some of the most significant protocols that are currently used include TCP, IP, UDP & ICMP. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) enables the host computer to establish a connection and exchange data. This guarantees the delivery of data in proper order. IP (Internet Protocol) specifies the format of the packets and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with the higher-level TCP to form to protocol suite known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and source. Something similar to the IP emails system by itself. It allows you to address a package & drop it in the system, but there is no direct link between you and the recipient. The TCP / IP, on the other hand, they set up a connection between two hosts so you can send messages back and forth for a period of time and.
UDP (User Data gram Protocol) is a connection less protocol, meaning that it is a network protocol in which a host can send a message without establishing a connection with the recipient. UDP runs on top of IP net recovery services. Instead, it offers a direct way to send and receive datagrams (packets) over an IP network. Its primary use is broadcasting messages over a network, but it does not guarantee the delivery of packets.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is an extension of IP. It supports packets containing error, informational & control message. ICMP command uses by Ping to test an Internet connection.

Ø  Ports
You may be wondering what a port is. Do not confuse this type port with the connection locations on the back of the computer system suck as serial port, parallel port or RJ 11 & RJ45 (physical port) we discussed earlier. A port, in networking term, is a handle – a connection point. It is numeric designation for a particular pathway of communications. All network communication, regardless of the port used, comes to your computer via connection to your network interface card.

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT OPERATING SYSTEM

 

DOS EXTERNAL COMMANDS
External command exists as a separate file on your hard disk. An external command is not loaded in memory with internal DOS command like command.com file. The reason for this is to save the computer memory. You must be present on the disk that are applied to the external command. Some of DOS external commands are Backup, Format etc.

BACKUP :-
This Command is used to take backups of any program / software on floppy disk.
Syntax:
Backup source path: Target path:
e.g.
C:\>BACKUP A: B: (Press Enter Key)

CHKDSK :-
This command is used to check the status of a disk and a status report displays. It can also correct errors. Show the status report errors found in MS - contains directories of the file allocation table and the DOS filing system. CHKDSK displays a summary of disk usage. If errors exist on the file disk, it alerts you with a message.
Syntax:
CHKDSK OR CHKDSK Drive-name
e.g.
C:\>CHKDSK A: (Press Enter Key)
C:\>CHKDSK B: (Press Enter Key)

DISKCOPY :-
This command complete contents of a floppy disk to a floppy disk is used for duplicates. DISKCOPY writes the current contents of the destination disk as new information on the copies. It has following syntax.
Syntax:
C:\>DISKCOPY Source-Drive: Target-Drive:
e.g.
C:\>DISKCOPY A: B: (Press Enter Key)
Source-drive:
Specifies the drive from which the data is to copied..
Target-Drive:
Specifies the drive on which the data is to copied.
Switch/v
Verifies that the information is copied correctly. Please use the switch as follows.
C:\>DISKCOPY A: B:/v

DISKCOMP:-
it is used to compare the contents of the two floppy disk. The command performs tack-by-track comparison. CISKCOPY determines the number of sides and sector per track to compare based on the format of the first disk you specify.
Syntax:
DISKCOMP Drive1: Drive2:
e.g.
DISKCOM A: B: (Press Enter Key)

XCOPY :-
This command is used to copies any directories, its sub-directories and files from one location to another.
Syntax:
XCOPY Source-path: Target-path:
Source-path:
It specific the location where we want to copy files, etc. This is the name of a drive letter and colon, a directory, a filename, or a combination.

SWITCHES:
/Y:-
It is used to replace existing files without prompting for confirmation switch. By default, XCOPY will ask to overwrite the designation files
/P:-
This switch is used to prompt for confirmation when replacing an existing file.
/S:-
This switch is used to copies directories and subdirectories, unless they empty. If this switch is left, XCOPY works within a single directory.
e.g.
C:\>Copy A: B: (Press Enter Key)

FORMAT :-
This command is used to create a new root  directory and file allocation table for the disk. It can also check for bad areas on the disk, and delete all data on the disk.
Syntax:
FORMAT drive: [/ V [: label]] [/ Q] [/ U] [/ F: size] [/ B] [/ S] [/ C]
Switches:\
/V: label :-
It specifies the volume label. Volume label identification can be a disk and a maximum of 11 characters. If it remains, then after formatting the volume is completed on the pointer to the label for the label.
/Q :-
This switch is used for quick formatting of a disk. Using this switch with format command. Computer deletes the FAT and the rood directory of a formatted disk, but does not scan the disk for bad sectors.
/U :-
This switch is used for unconditional format of a disk. Unconditional formatting destroys all existing data on a disk and prevents us from "Un formatting" this disk at a later stage. We can use this switch, if we facing Read and Write errors during the use of a disk.
/S :-
The switch system is used to copy the files to the new format disk file command.com.
e.g.
C:\>FORMAT A:/S                          OR
C:\>FORMAT B:/Q/U/S

CHKDSK :-
it is used to checks a disk and displays a status report.
Syntax:
CHKDSK [drive:][[path]filename] [/F][/V][drive:][path]
Set to test drive and directory, specifies the file (s) to check for fragmentation.

Defines the drive and directory to check,
/F Fixes errors on the disk.
/ V displays the full path and name of each file on disk.

Type CHKDSK without parameters to check the current disc. Instead of using CHKDSK, try using SCANDISK. SCANDISK can reliably detect and Fix a very wide range of disk issues.
e.g.
C:\>CHKDSK A: OR CHKDSK C:

DEFINITIONS OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

MICROSOFT WINDOWS :-

Microsoft Corporation created Microsoft Windows operating system. It is Graphical User Interface (GUI), operating system based largely on picture, button and many options on the screen rather than on typed commands such as the old DOS. For Example if the user has to open the Microsoft Word for writing then he just has to double click the icon on the desktop and the program will start. Microsoft performs the same function as the Windows MS-DOS. It performs the duty of interface between you and your computer.
Feature of GUI causes the display screen to divide into section. Each window is for different and specific purpose. Using the windows feature, an operating system can display several windows on a computer screen each showing a different application program, such as word processing, spread sheet and graphics. It is a complete operating system.
TYPES OF WINDOWS
WINDOWS 3.X :-
This DOS base GUI operating system environment is built by Microsoft.
WINDOWS 95 :-
After the DOS base of Windows 3.x, it has a complete operating system for personal computers.
WINDOWS NT (New Technology) :-
This Multiuser is multitasking, multiprocessing GUI network operating system.
WINDOWS 98 :-
It release after Windows 95. It is an operating system that uses a GUI feature and acts like web browser software and allows users to access data on the Internet.
WINDOW 2000 :-
It release after Windows 98. Latest release is Windows 2000 (Millennium).
WINDOWS XP :-
The release of Windows XP is the latest version of Windows. GUI feature uses a Windows XP operating system ... XP stands for experience.
DESKTOP AND USER INTERFACE
The first appearing screen when windows start completely is called Desktop. The desktop contains files, folder, programs and documents; recycle bin, My Computer & shortcut icon. Technically, the desktop is the area behind all the objects on the screen, including any windows that you open. No matter if you used the Windows environment, you can always get back to the desktop to expand it to open the program and fill out an application, whether the whole screen. Desktop icons are available on the desktop. Users use icons of desktop to run application software or operate apply commands. Desktop icon is the interface between user and computer.

• TASKBAR :-
  Taskbar includes the Start button on your desktop once in the left. Start button Windows applications, open documents, is used to start up help, etc. Immediately to the right of the start button is the quick launch toolbar which contains buttons to run the internet explorer browser, outlook express, show desktop and the righty open full screen windows to view most button channels.
  In the center section of the taskbar, you will see a button for each program that is currently running and one for ever folder that is currently running and one for every folder that is currently open. This button provides a quick means of switching to a folder or application.
  The right most section is called tray. It consists of a clock displays the current time. The tray can also contain for various utility programs such as Internet connection or MSN Messenger program icon etc.

• RECYCLE BIN :-
  Recycle Bin is the folder. When we delete one or more files or folders from hard disk, they are not actually erased they are transferred to a folder called Recycle Bin on the desktop. 
• Restore a file or files recycle bin :-
  You can restore files or folders in the trash or recycle bin. Click on the file or folder, click right mouse button and then click restore.   
  
  OR    

                 Select the folder from the Files or Trash, click the File menu, and then click Restore

• Empty Recycle Bin :-
  To empty recycle bin point to recycle bin icon on desktop click right mouse button, click Empty Recycle Bin on dropdown menu and click yes.

•  MY DOCUMENTS ICON :-
  My Document contains documents. Through double clicks we can open the My Document. After opening the document window double click the document, which you want to open. When you double-click a document icon, Windows start the application (Word processing, spread sheet, etc.) and the document itself.
• MY COMPUTER:-
  We can access the hardware and software through it. Open the My Computer icon in any drive and then double-click Access Hardware or Software. 
• INTERNET EXPLORER:-
  It is use for internet connection. Internet Explorer Web browser software through which you can view any website.
•  CLIPBOARD :-
  Clipboard is used to copy or move data easily from one program to another using the same cut, copy & paste commands.

MOVING WINDOWS

This procedure is use to move a window when it is not maximized to another location on the screen.

Method one:

Drag the title bar to a new location.

By another Method when it is not maximized: 

1.     Click right mouse button on title bar a drop down many display on screen. 

2.     Click on Move.

3.     Using arrow keys we can shift windows to any desired location.

ICON 

An Icon is picture used in GUI to represent a command, a program, a file or a task e.g. the diskette can represent an image of the command "Save (Store) this document", the icons are activated by pointing a mouse or other device. A graphical icon or a symbol that represents something in your computer.

To make a new folder use the following steps: 

This method is used to create a new one.

1.     Double click My Computer and then double click the drive or folder in which you want to place the new folder.

2.     On the File menu point to New and then click the Folder.

3.     Type the name of the new folder and press Enter.

Create a folder on desktop: 

This method can be used to create a new folder on the desktop.

1.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop.

2.     Point to new on drop down menu.

3.     Click folder, enter name.

SHORTCUT: 

A shortcut is a quick way to open a file or folder without having to launch a program or go to its permanent location.

Create a shortcut on desktop: 

1.     Click on My Computer

2.     Select the folder or file and click right mouse button, click copy or cut.

3.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop

4.     Click on paste a shortcut.

OR

1.     Click right mouse button on a blank space on desktop, select new, and click on short cut.

2.     Enter the location in the Create shortcut dialog box or search through browse, select the files or folder

3.     Click Ok

4.     Click Next

5.     Click Ok

To find an application or document or file: 

This process (search) is used to search for an existing application.

1.     Click on start button

2.     Point to find

3.     Select files and folder

4.     Enter the name of the file in the named text box and text in the containing text box

5.     Click Find Now button. 

To quit windows and Shut Down computer

This method is used to exit Windows itself.

Steps

1.     Click start Button on taskbar

2.     Click on Shut Down..... a dialog box appear on screen.

3.     Click on shut down radio button

4.     click on Ok

To move or copy document

To move or copy a file (document) or folder use the following steps.

1.     Double click My Computer and then find the file or folder you want to move or copy and then click it.

2.     Click edit click cut or copy

3.     Open the folder where you want to place the file

4.     Click edit and then click paste.

Using Wilder Deleting a file in the following steps

1.     Double click My Computer and then find the file or folder you want to delete and click it. 

2.     On the file menu Click Delete, The files you want to delete are put in the recycle bin, a holding place holding the files you no longer need. The file is not actually removed from your hard disk until you empty the recycle bin.

New folder is created by following steps

1.     Double click My Computer and then double click the drive or folder in which you want to place the new folder.

2.     On the File menu point the New and then click the folder.

3.     Type the name of the new folder and press Enter.

Steps to Copy a file to a Floppy Disk are as under

1.     Double click My Computer, find the file or folder you want to copy and then click it.

2.     On the File menu point to send to and then click the drive where you want to copy the file or folder. 

To start a program 

This process begins with an application button is used to start.

1.     Click Start, and then point to Programs.

2.     If the program you want is not on the menu, point to folder that contains the program.

3.     Click the program name.

To open a file or folder 

1.     Double click My Computer, 

2.     Double click the drive that contains the file.

3.     Double click the file or folder you want to open. 

WINDOWS FILE SYSTEM :-

A software component services, create, read, write and delete that may provide the files / directory on the management of storage in a storage device (hard disk drive, floppy disk, CD) side. Windows support three file systems FAT, VFAT, NTFS

FAT (FILE ALLOCATION TABLE)

The File Allocation Table  (FAT)  file system was introduced with MS-DOS in 1981. Because of its age, almost all computer operating systems, including Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 2000, XP, Mac, OS and most UNIX operating systems support the FAT file system. FAT file system is not stopping files by a simple file system such that power failure is deteriorating in abnormal shutdown. FAT file system DOS, a user operating system that was designed to be used with. The FAT file system therefore does not record security information such as the owner or access permission of a file of directory.

NTFS (NEW TECHNOLOGY FILE SYSTEM)

Windows NT operating system is used by NTFS. It supports Windows NT, Windows 2000, XP. NTFS tools many security features to ensure reliable storage and retrieval of data. NTFS has many features that make it more suitable than FAT file systems.

FAT 32 / VFAT

 This FAT, FAT32 file system, File Allocation Table (FAT or FAT16) is an addition to the prior version of the file system format. When you drive in this format, to more efficiently store data up to several hundred MB of additional disk space on this drive. Also, the program loads faster and uses less system resources than your computer.

INSTALLATION OF SOFTWARE

The following is the procedure for installing the software.

Method - 1

1.     Double click on My Computer Icon on Desktop

2.     Open the drive from where you install the software.

3.     Click setup the installation will be start then follow the instruction untill Finish.

Method - 2

1.     Open the Control Panel 

2.     Double Click on Add/Remove program Button 

3.     Click on install/uninstall tab

4.     Click on install tab

5.     Click on Next

6.     Select Drive from where you want to install software.

FUNCTIONALITIES OF MOUSE AND KEYBOARD 

Mouse Setting:-

You can change the configuration of the mouse control panel. Double click on Control Panel to open control penal dialing box. Mouse Properties Double-click the Mouse icon to open the dialog box. There are three tab buttons available in the Properties dialog box.

• Button Tab
  Click on Button tab to change the left - right mouse button and set double click speed, press apply button and then ok button.
• Mouse Pointer
  Click the Pointer tab to change the mouse pointer shape and scheme, Scheme list box or click on the Browse button shape an individual item. A browse box will be open then the desired shape. Click on apply, then ok.
• Motion
  Click on Motion tab, set mouse speed and select check / uncheck mouse pointer trail.

MOUSE TECHNIQUE

Mouse is an input device. There are different mouse techniques. We can adjust the double-click speed, appearance, cursor, pop-up rate and adjust the mouse trails from the control panel.

We can use second one mouse technique also as follow:

POINTING

Another point on the screen to move quickly from one point. To place the mouse pointer on over any location. We rolled mouse on the surface of flat to point to any location.
CLICKING
To place the mouse pointer on any desired location or icon or picture and then click left or right mouse button over that location or icon or picture is clicking.
DOUBLE - CLICKING
To keep the mouse pointer over any icon or image desired location or click on the icon or image location or the left or right mouse button to perform an action.
DRAGGING
To point to any location or icon or picture and then click and hold left mouse button and drag to the designed location.
SCROLL KEY
Mouse scroll key is used to scroll through open windows.
KEY BOARD SETTING

You can change the keyboard setting through Control Panel. We can use control panel dialog box for keyboard setting. Double click on keyboard icon to open keyboard properties dialog box. There are two tab button available on properties.

• Speed Tab
  1- Click on Speed tab to set character repeat, repeat rate, and cursor blank rate.
• Language Tab
  1 - Click on the tab to install and configure language. Language to add or apply it after clicking features to select the language and then click OK tab.
• USE OF WINDOWS HELP
  The windows help provides help topics and tips to help you accomplish your task. Windows, when working, which should be solved with the help of the options you can encounter various problems. Follow the following procedure.

1.     Click on Start button

2.     Click on Help a windows help dialog box appear on screen with three tab

1.     Contents Tab

Click and select any topics.

2.     Index Tab

Click on Index Tab. Select any type of keyword in any of the keywords, select the box "Type in keywords to search", and then click on display tab.

3.     Search Tab

Type keywords in "Type keyword to find" box, click on list topics tab, a list will appear. From the box to select the themes of "The Select Titles" and then click on the Display tab to see us about selected topics.